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Reading1WHATISSTRESSThetermstresshasbeendefinedinseveraldifferentways.sometimesthetermisappliedtostimulioreventsinourenvironmentthatmakephysicalandemotionaldemandsonusandsometimesitisappliedtoouremotionalandphysicalreactionstosuchstimuli.inthisdiscussionwewillrefertotheenvironmentalstimulioreventsasstressorsandtotheemotionalandphysicalreactionsasstress.压力这个词已经有几种不同的定义有时候这个术语适用于我们环境中的刺激或事件,这些刺激或事件会对我们产生身体和情感方面的要求,有时也适用于我们对这种刺激的情绪和身体反应在这个讨论中,我们将环境刺激或事件称为压力,并将情绪和身体上的反应称为压力Manysortsofeventsbestressorsincludingdisasterssuchashurricanesortornadoes;majorlifeeventssuchasdivorceorthelossofajob;anddailyhasslessuchashavingtowaitinlineatthesupermarketwhenyouneedtobesomewhereelsein10minutes.Whatallthiseventshaveincommonisthattheyinterferewithorthreatouraccustomedwayoflife.whenweencountersuchstressorswemustpulltogetherourmentalandphysicalresourcesinordertodealwiththechallenge.Howwellwesucceedindoingsowilldeterminehowseriousatollthestresswilltakeonourmentalandphysicalwell-being.许多事件都是压力源,包括灾难,如飓风或龙卷风;重大生活事件,如离婚或失业;每天都有麻烦,比如当你要在10分钟内到别的地方去却不得不在超市排队等所有这些事件都有共同之处,就是它们干涉或威胁我们习惯的生活方式当我们遇到这样的压力时,我们必须整合我们的精神和物质资源来应对挑战我们如何成功地做到这一点将决定压力对我们身心健康将产生多大的影响ReactingtostressorsTheCanadianphysiologistHansSeylehasbeenthemostinfluentialwriteronstress.Seyleproposedthatbothhumansandotheranimalsreacttoanystressorinthreestagescollectivelyknownasthegeneraladaptationsyndrome.thefirststagewhenthepersonoranimalbecomesawareofthestressoristhealarmreaction.Inthisstagetheorganismbecomeshighlyalertandarousedenergizedbyaburstofepinephrine.Afterthealarmreactioncomesthestageofresistanceastheorganismtriestoadapttothestressfulstimulusortoescapefromit.Iftheseeffortsaresuccessfulthestateoftheorganismreturnstonormal.Iftheorganismcannotadapttothecontinuingstresshoweveritentersastageofexhaustionorcollapse.加拿大生理学家HansSeyle在压力方面一直是最有影响力的作家塞尔提出,人类和其他动物在三个阶段对任何压力源作出反应,统称为一般适应综合症第一阶段,当人或动物意识到应激源时,就是警报反应在这个阶段,机体变得高度警觉和激起,并被一阵肾上腺素所激发当警报反应进入抵抗阶段后,机体试图适应压力刺激或逃避压力如果这些努力成功,机体的状态就会恢复正常然而,如果生物体不能适应持续的压力,它就进入衰竭或崩溃的阶段Seyledevelopedhismodelofthegeneraladaptationsyndromeasaresultofresearchwithratsandotheranimals.Inratscertainstressorssuchaspainfultail-pullingconsistentlyledtothesamesortsofstressreactionsinhumanshoweveritishardertopredictwhatwillbestressfultoaparticularpersonataparticulartime.Whetheraparticularstimuluswillbestressfuldependsontheperson’ssubjectiveappraisalofthatstimulus.HowthreateningisitHowwellhaveIhandledthissortofthinginthepasthowwellwillIbeabletohandleitthistimeforonepersonbeingcalledontogiveatalkinfrontofaclassisahighlystressfulstimulusthatwillimmediatelyproducesuchelementsasapoundingheartandadrymouth.foranotherpersonbeingcalledontogiveatalkisnotthreateningatallbutfacingadeadlinetocompleteatermpaperisextremelystressful.inhumansmoreoverthespecificstressreactionislikelytovarywidely;somestressfulsituationsgiverisepredominantlytoemotionsoffearsomegiverisetoangerandsomegiverisetohelplessnessanddepression.由于对老鼠和其他动物的研究,Seyle开发了他的一般适应综合征模型在老鼠身上,某些压力因素,比如痛苦的尾巴拉扯,一直导致和人类出现同样的压力反应,然而,在特定的时间很难预测什么会对某个人造成压力一个特定的刺激是否会产生压力取决于该人对该刺激的主观评价这有多大威胁?我过去如何处理这类事情?这次我能处理多好?对于一个人来说,在班级面前讲话是一种高度压力的刺激,会立即产生心跳和口干等元素对另一个人来说,讲话根本不是威胁,但是面对完成学期论文的期限是非常紧张的此外,在人类中,特定的应激反应可能差异很大;一些压力的情况主要是恐惧情绪,一些引起愤怒,一些引起无助和沮丧Reading2COPINGWITHSTRESS应对压力ItisFridayeveningandtwoyounglawyersgetphonecallsathome.Thetrialdataforanimportantcasehasbeenmovedup.BothofthelawyerswillnowhavetoprepareareportforthecasebyMondaymorning.Itisathreateningsituationforboth.Eachmustdoextensiveresearchandwriteacomplexdocumentofsome40pagesallinasingleweekend.furthermoreeachknowsthatherworkwillbeevaluatedbythefirm’spartnersandhowwellshedoesmaygreatlyinfluenceherfutureinthefirm.现在是星期五晚上,两位年轻律师在家接到了电话一个重要案件的审判数据已被公布现在两位律师都必须在星期一早上准备一份报告这对双方都是一种威胁每个人都必须进行广泛的研究,并在一个周末内完成大约40页的复杂文档此外,每个人都知道她的工作将由公司的合作伙伴进行评估,而且她做得如何可能极大地影响她在公司的未来Oneofthelawyersfindsthesituationextremelystressful;shefeelstremendousanxietyexperiencesheadachesandstomachupsetandhasdifficultyworking.shesomehowmanagestoproduceareportbutsheisnotatallhappywithit.theotherlawyeralthoughshetoofeelsthepressureofthesituationseesitnotsomuchasathreatbutasachallenge-anopportunitytoshowhowgoodsheis.shemovesintothefirm’sofficesfortheweekendandsleepingonlythreehoursanightcompletesabrilliantreportwithaclearmindandasurgeofenergy.asthisexamplehelpsillustratestressiscausednotsomuchbyeventsthemselvesasbythewaysinwhichpeopleperceiveandreacttoevents.其中一位律师认为情况极其紧张;她感到非常焦虑,经历头痛,胃部不适,而且很难工作她以某种方式设法做出报告,但她对此并不满意另一位律师虽然也感受到了这种情况的压力,但并不认为这是一种威胁,而是一种挑战-一个显示她有多好的机会她周末进入公司办公室,每晚只睡三个小时,精神清醒,精力充沛,完成了一篇精彩的报告正如这个有力的例子说明的那样,压力不是由事件本身引起的,而是由人们对事件的感知和反应的方式引起的Degreeofcontrol控制程度Animportantinfluenceonpeople’sabilitytocopewithstressfulsituationsisthedegreeofcontrolthattheyfeeltheycanexerciseoverthesituation.bothanimalsandhumanshavebeenfoundtocopebetterwithpainfulorthreateningstimuliwhentheyfeeltheycanexercisesomedegreeofcontrolratherthanbeingpassiveandhelplessvictims.suchasenseofcontrolcanhelpminimizethenegativeconsequencesofstressbothpsychologicalandphysical.inonewell-knownexperimentJayWeissadministeredelectricshockstopairsofrats.Ineachpaironeofthetwoanimalswasgivenadegreeofcontroloverthesituation;itcouldreachthroughaholeinthecageandpressapanelthatwouldturnofftheshockbothforitselfandforitspartner.Thusthetworatsreceivedexactlythesamenumberofshocksbutonewaspassiveandhelplessandtheotherwasincontrol.afteracontinuous21-hoursessiontheanimalsweresacrificedandtheirstomachsexaminedforulcers.thoseratsthatcouldexertcontrolhadmuchlessulcerationthantheirhelplesspartners.人们应对压力的能力的一个重要影响是他们觉得自己可以对局势进行控制的程度当动物和人类觉得自己可以行使某种程度的控制权,而不是被动和无助的受害者时,动物和人类都能更好地应对痛苦或威胁的刺激这种控制感可以帮助最大限度地减少心理和生理压力的负面影响在一个众所周知的实验中,杰伊·韦斯(JayWeiss)对成对的老鼠进行电击在每一对中,两只动物中的一只受到一定程度的控制,它可以通过笼子里的一个洞,并按下一个面板,可以为自己和它的伙伴关闭震动因此,这两只老鼠受到的冲击数量完全相同,但是一只被动无助,另一只控制住了连续21小时后,将动物处死并检查其胃部是否溃疡那些可以控制的老鼠比他们无助的伴侣溃疡要少得多Theabilitytocontrolpainfulstimulioftenbenefitshumanstoo.ForexampletheloudmusiccomingintoyourearsfromyouriPodisprobablynotstressful;infactitsquiteenjoyable.butthesamemusiccomingfromyourneighborshousecanbeterriblyandstressful.merelyknowingthatonecancontrolanoisemakesitlessbothersome.That’sonereasonwhyyourloudmusicdoesnotbotheryou-youknowyoucanturnitoff.控制疼痛刺激的能力也经常使人类受益例如,从你的iPod进入你的耳朵大声的音乐可能没有压力,事实上,这是相当愉快的但是来自你邻居家的同样的音乐可能会让你非常紧张只知道一个人能控制噪音会减少麻烦这就是为什么你的嘈杂音乐不会打扰你-你知道你可以把它关掉Predictability可预测性Evenwhenyoucannotcontrolthemunpleasanteventstendtobelessstressfuliftheyarepredictable-ifyouatleastknowwhentheywilloccur.ThiswasdemonstratedbyWeissinanotherstudywithrats.Onegroupofratsheardabuzzerabout10secondsbeforetheywouldreceiveashock;althoughtheanimalscouldnotescapetheshockatleasttheyhadachancetopreparethemselvesfortheexpectedpain.Asecondgroupofratsreceivednosuchwarnings;Theshockscameunpredictably.Weissfoundthattheratsthatwereforewarnedoftheshocksdevelopedfewerulcersthantheratsthatwerenotforewarned.Thisfindinghasparallelsinhumanlife.thedeathofalovedoneforexampleisusuallylesstraumaticwhenitisanticipatedthanwhenitisunexpected.Onalesstragiclevelmanystudentsfindsurprisequizzestobemoreupsettingthanscheduledquizzesthattheycanpreparefor.即使你无法控制他们,如果不愉快的事件是可预测的,那么往往会减轻压力-如果你至少知道他们什么时候会发生Weiss在另外一项关于老鼠的研究中证实了这一点一组老鼠在接到电击前约10秒钟听到蜂鸣声,虽然动物至少不能逃避震荡,但他们有机会为预期的痛苦做好准备第二组老鼠没有收到这样的警告;冲击变得难以预料Weiss发现,预先警告的老鼠发生的溃疡比没有预先警告的老鼠要少这一发现与人类生活相似例如,所爱的人的死亡在预期的时候通常没有比在意想不到的时候痛苦在不那么悲惨的水平上,许多学生发现突击测验比他们可以准备的定期测验更令人不安Personalityfactors个性因素AresomepeoplegenerallybetterthanothersatcopingwithstressResearchsuggeststhattheanswerisyes-thatthereisacertainkindofpersonwhohasarelativelystress-resistantpersonality.TheleadingresearcherinthisfieldhasbeenSuzanneKobasa.Dr.Kobasafoundthatpeoplewhocopewellwithstresstendtohavethreecharacteristics:Theyarecommittedtowhattheyaredoingtheyfeelincontrolratherthanpowerlessandtheywelcomemoderateamountsofchangeandchallenge.InstudiesofpeoplefacingstressfulsituationsKobasaandherassociatesfoundthatthosewithstress-resistantpersonalities-thatisthosewhoarehighincommitmentcontrolandchallenge-experiencefewerphysicalillnessesthanthosewhosepersonalitiesarelesshardly.有些人一般比其他人更好地应付压力吗?研究表明答案是肯定的-有某种人具有相应对抗压力的性格这个领域的领先研究者是SuzanneKobasaKobasa博士发现,处理压力的人倾向于有三个特点他们致力于他们正在做的事情,他们感到可控的(而不是无能为力),他们欢迎适度的变化和挑战在面对压力情况的人们的研究中,Kobasa和她的同事发现那些有抗性的个性-即那些高度承诺,控制和挑战的人-比那些性格不那么强壮的人经历更少的身体疾病Untilquiterecentlyitwasgenerallybelievedthattomaintaingoodhealthpeopleshouldstrivetoavoidstressorsintheirlives.Suchastrategycanbequitelimitinghowever.Thedesiretoavoidstressmayalsoleadpeopletoavoidpotentiallybeneficialchangesintheirlivessuchasjobchangesorpromotions.Moreovertheattempttoavoidstressisoftenunrealistic.Howforexamplecanapersonavoidsuchshocksasaparentsdeathinfactifpeopledonotconfrontacertainamountofstressintheirlivestheywillendupbeingboredandunstimulatedwhichalsocanbephysicallyharmful.Inthelastanalysiseachpersonneedstocometotermswithstressinhisorherownwaysometimestryingtoavoiditbutsometimesacceptingitorevenseekingitoutasachallengetobemastered.直到最近,人们普遍认为,要保持良好的健康,人们应该努力避免生活中的压力然而,这样的策略可能相当有限避免压力的愿望也可能导致人们避免潜在的有益的生活变化,如工作变动或晋升而且,避免压力的尝试往往是不现实的例如,一个人如何避免父母死亡这样的冲击?事实上,如果人们在生活中不面对一定的压力,他们最终会感到无聊和没有受到刺激,这也会造成身体上的伤害在最后的分析中,每个人都需要用自己的方式来应对压力,有时试图避免压力,但有时候会接受压力,甚至把压力看作是一个挑战Reading3STRESSANDILLNESS压力和疾病Inmanystressfulsituationsthebodysresponsecanimproveourperformance–webecomemorealertandbetterabletotakeeffectiveaction.Butwhenstressisencounteredcontinuallythebodysreactionsaremorelikelytobeharmfulthanhelpfultous.Aswillbeseenlaterinthisunittheproductionofstress-relatedhormonesseemstomakepeoplemoresusceptibletoheartdisease.Andstressreactionscanreducethedisease-fightingeffectivenessofthebodysimmunesystemtherebyincreasingsusceptibilitytoillnessesrangingfromcoldstocancer.Otherdiseasesthatcanresultatleastinpartfromstressincludearthritisasthmamigraineheadachesandulcers.Workerswhoexperiencethegreatestamountofjobpressurehavebeenfoundtobeespeciallylikelytosufferfromalargenumberofillnesses.Moreovermanystudieshaveshownthatpeoplewhohaveexperiencedmajorchangesintheirlivesareatanunusuallyhighriskforavarietyofillnesses.在许多紧张的情况下,身体的反应可以改善我们的表现-我们变得更加警觉,并且能够更好地采取有效行动但是当压力持续不断,身体的反应更有可能是有害的,而不是对我们有帮助正如本单元稍后将会看到的那样,压力相关激素的产生似乎使人们更易患心脏病而压力反应会降低人体免疫系统的抗病能力,从而增加感染疾病的可能性,从感冒到癌症其他可导致压力的疾病包括关节炎,哮喘,偏头痛和溃疡发现工作压力最大的工作人员特别容易患上大量的疾病此外,许多研究表明,那些经历过重大变化的人,患上各种疾病的风险非常高Asanexampleofstress-inducedillnesstakethecaseofstomachulcerssmalllesionsinthestomachwallthatafflictoneoutofeverytwentypeopleatsomepointintheirlives.Ulcersareacommondisorderamongpeoplewhoworkinoccupationsthatmakeheavypsychologicaldemandsfromassemblylineworkerstoair-trafficcontrollers.Insuchcasesstresstendstobetheculprit.Stressleadstoincreasedsecretionofhydrochloricacidinthestomach.Hydrochloricacidnormallyhelpstobreakdownfoodsduringdigestionbutinexcessamountsitcaneatawayatthestomachliningproducingulcers.以压力引起的疾病为例,以胃溃疡为例,胃壁中的小病灶在生命中某一时刻每20人中就有一人受到折磨在人们的工作中,从从事流水线工作人员到空中交通管制员都有强烈的心理需求,他们中溃疡是一种常见的疾病在这种情况下,压力往往是罪魁祸首压力导致胃酸分泌增加盐酸通常有助于在消化过程中分解食物,但是过量的话,它可以在胃里吃掉,产生溃疡Stressandcancer压力与癌症OneoftheleastunderstooddiseasesandpartlyforthatreasononeofthemostfearediscancerwhichisthesecondleadingcauseofdeathinAmerica.Medicalscientistsandresearchersarestilltryingtounderstandthebiologicalmechanismsofcellbehaviorthatunderlietheonsetanddevelopmentofcancer.Howeverstudiesseemtosuggestthattheremaybelinksbetweenemotionsandcancer.最不了解的、部分由于这个原因最令人害怕的疾病之一是癌症,这是美国的第二大死亡原因医学科学家和研究人员仍在试图了解细胞行为的生物学机制,这是癌症发病和发展的基础然而,研究似乎表明情绪和癌症之间可能有联系Theselinksinvolvethefunctioningofthebody’simmunesystemacollectionofbillionsofcellsthattravelthroughthebloodstreamanddefendthebodyagainstinvasionbyforeignagentsincludingbacteriaandvirusesandagainstcellsthatbecomecancerous.Psychologicalfactorscaninfluenceimmunefunctioningandthefieldofresearchontheseinfluencesiscalledpsychoimmunology.Itisbelievedthatsmallcancersformfrequentlyineveryonebutourimmunesystemusuallyrejectsthem.Howeverprolongedstressmayleadtoelevatedlevelsofcorticosteroidsandtolowerlevelsoftheneurotransmitternorepinephrineinthebrain.Theseandotherchangesapparentlymakeitharderfortheimmunesystemtorejectcancercells.Whentheorganismcopeswiththestressinanactivewaythesechangesintheimmunesystemseemtobeminimizedwhentheorganismreactswithhelplessnessanddepressionthechangesaremaximized.这些环节涉及人体免疫系统的功能,汇集在血液中的数十亿细胞,保护机体免受包括细菌和病毒在内的外来物质的侵袭,抵御癌细胞的侵袭心理因素会影响免疫功能,对这些影响的研究领域称为心理免疫学人们相信每个人都会经常形成小癌症,但是我们的免疫系统通常会排斥他们然而,长时间的压力可能会导致皮质类固醇水平升高,并导致脑内神经递质去甲肾上腺素水平降低这些和其他的变化显然使免疫系统更难排斥癌细胞当机体以一种积极的方式应对压力时,免疫系统中的这些变化似乎被最小化,当机体以无助和抑郁症反应时,这些变化会被最大化AnimalstudiesTheselinksbetweenstresshelplessnessimmunefunctionandcancerhavebeendemonstratedexperimentallyinstudieswithanimals.InonestudyconductedbySklarandAnismanthreegroupsofmicewereinjectedwiththesamenumberofcancercells.Onegroupwasexposedtoanelectricshockthattheycouldlearntoescapebyjumpingoverabarriertosafety.Asecondgroupwasexposedtothesamedurationofshockbuthadnomeansofactivelycopingwiththestress.Thethirdgroupwasnevershocked.Thecancergrewthefastestandledtotheearliestdeathintheanimalsthathadnomeansofcopingwiththeirstress.Incontrasttheanimalsthatgrowthfromthosethathadnotbeenshockedatall.压力,无助,免疫功能和癌症之间的这些联系已经在动物研究中得到了实验证明在一项由Sklar和Anisman进行的研究中,三组小鼠注射了相同数量的癌细胞一群人遭到电击,他们可以通过跳过安全屏障学会逃离第二组遭到相同的电击,但没有积极应对压力的手段第三组从未电击无法应对压力的动物癌症增长最快,导致最早的死亡相比之下,那些从来没有被电击的动物长大了HumanstudiesThelinkbetweenstresshelplessnessandcancerhasbeendemonstratedinhumansaswell.Inonedramaticstudyin1981RichardShekelleandhisco-workersstudiedover2000menwhohadtakenapsychologicaltestthatdiagnosesdepressionandotheremotionalstates.SeventeenyearslatertheresearcherfoundthatthosemenwhohadbeenhighlydepressedatthetimeofthetestinghadtwicethechanceofdyingofcancerasmenwhohadnotbeendepressedsincedepressedpeopletendtodrinkmorealcoholorsmokemorecigaretteswhichinturnincreasestheirriskofcancerShekelletookthisintoaccountwhenheanalyzedhisdata;theassociationbetweendepressionandcancerstillheldregardlessofdrinkingorsmokingrates.inanotherstudywidowedhusbandswerefoundtohaveadeclineinthefunctionoftheirwhitebloodcells-partoftheimmunesystem-withintwomonthsoftheirwivesdeaths.压力,无助和癌症之间的联系也在人类中得到证明理查德·谢克尔(RichardShekelle)和他的同事在1981年的一个戏剧性的研究中,研究了2000多名经过心理测试诊断出抑郁症和其他情绪状态的男性十七年后,研究人员发现那些在测试时高度抑郁的男性患癌症的机率是没有抑郁的男性的两倍,因为抑郁症患者往往喝更多的酒或者吸更多的香烟,反过来又增加了患癌症的风险,Shekelle在分析他的数据时考虑到了这一点;无论饮酒或吸烟率如何,抑郁症和癌症之间的关系仍然存在在另一项研究中,丧偶的丈夫在其妻子死亡的两个月内被发现其白血细胞的功能下降-免疫系统的一部分Thereisalsosomeevidencethatpeople’semotionsareinvolvedincanceronceithasbegun.inastudyofwomenwhounderwentmastectomyforearly-stagebreastcancerGreerfoundthatwomenwhoreactedtotheirdiagnosiswitheitherafightingspiritorstrongdenialsweremorelikelytobefreeofdiseaseeightyearslaterthanwerewomenwhoreactedwithstoicacceptanceorwithfeelingsofhelplessness.还有一些证据表明,一旦癌症开始,人们的情绪就会与癌症有关在对早期乳腺癌接受乳房切除术的妇女进行的一项研究中,格里尔发现,那些女性对自己的诊断做出的反应要么是战斗精神,要么坚决否认的比那些坚忍接受或感到无助的女性更可能没有疾病Recommendationsfortreatment治疗建议Findingsonthelinksbetweenemotionalreactionstostressandtheprogressionofcancerhavegivenrisetosomerecommendationsforthetreatmentofcancerpatients.Inparticularprogramsthatcanhelpgivecancerpatientsagreaterfeelingofcontrolovertheirdestiniesandthatcanhelpthemadopta“fightingspirit”mightjustincreasetheiroddsofsurvival.Althoughthereisnosolidevidenceasyetthatsuchprogramscaninfactextendpeople’slivesdevelopingsuchprogramsremainsanexcitingfrontierinhealthpsychology.关于情绪对压力的反应与癌症进展之间的联系的发现已经引起对于癌症患者治疗的一些建议特别是可以帮助癌症患者控制自己的命运,并可以帮助他们采取“战斗精神”的计划,可能会增加他们的生存几率虽然目前还没有确凿的证据表明这种方案实际上可以延伸人们的生活,但开发这样的方案仍然是健康心理学领域的一个激动人心的前沿Reading1Heartdisease心脏病Heartdiseaseiswesternsociety’snumber-onekiller.itistheleadingcauseofdeathforbothmenandwomenandaccountsformorethanoneinfourofalldeathsinAmerica.Heartdiseaseusedtobeconsideredamalediseaseandamongthemiddle-agedthisisstilltrue.Howeversince1984morewomenthanmenactuallydiefromheartdiseaseintheUnitedStateseachyear.itisjustthattheonsetofheartdiseasestartslaterinwomenthaninmen.somegoodnewsthoughforbothgendersisthatdeathsfromheartdiseaseintheunitedstateshavebeenfallingsincethebeginningofthetwenty-fistcentury.Worldwidehoweverthepictureisnotsogood.HeartdiseaseratesareclimbingrapidlyallaroundtheglobeasmoreandmoreculturesadoptaWesternLifestyle-smokingmoreexerciselessandeatingadiethigherinfats.心脏病是西方社会的头号杀手它是男性和女性死亡的主要原因,占美国死亡人数的四分之一以上心脏病以前被认为是一种男性疾病,在中年人当中,这仍然是事实然而,自1984年以来,美国每年都有更多的女性死于心脏病只是女性心脏病的发生晚于男性有一个好消息,不过对于男性女性来说,自二十一世纪初以来,美国心脏病的死亡人数一直在下降但是在全球范围内,情况并不是那么好随着越来越多的文化采取西方生活方式,越来越多的人吸烟,减少锻炼,并且在饮食中摄入更多的脂肪,心脏病发病率在全球迅速攀升Heartdiseaseusuallyinvolvestheformationsofafattysubstancecalledplaqueinthewallsofthecoronaryarterieswhichsupplybloodtotheheart.Ifthearteriesbecomenarrowedenoughorblockedthepersonmaysufferaheartattackdeathofaregionofheartmuscletissue.Amongthemanyfactorsthathavebeenfoundtoberelatedtotheriskofdevelopingheartdiseasearehighbloodpressureorhypertensionahistoryorheartdiseaseamongone’scloserelativesindicatingapossiblegeneticpredispositiontothediseasecigarettesmokingbeingrelativelyoverweighandahighlevelofafattysubstancecalledcholesterolintheblood.Inadditiontoallofthesewell-establishedriskfactorsitisnowclearthatstresscanhaveamajorimpactonthedevelopmentofheartdisease.Peoplewhocontinuallyundergoagreatdealofstress-andwholacktheabilitytocontrolit-areatsignificantlygreaterriskforheartdiseasethanpeoplewhoundergolessstressorwhocanmanagestresssuccessfully.Jobsthatimposehighpsychologicaldemandsbutthatprovidetheworkerwithlittlecontrol-suchasacookawaiterorahospitalorderly-seemtobreedheartdisease.心脏病通常是由为心脏供血的冠状动脉壁上形成称为斑块的脂肪物质形成的如果动脉变窄或阻塞,则该人可能遭受心脏病发作(心脏肌肉组织区域的死亡)在已经被发现与开发心脏疾病的风险的诸多因素中,高血压(或高血压)、吸烟、血液中称为胆固醇的高水平脂肪物质相对容易发生,高血压是一个历史及疾病或心脏疾病(表明可能的遗传倾向的疾病)除了所有这些良好的风险因素外,现在很清楚,压力可能会对心脏病的发展产生重大影响那些持续承受巨大压力的人,以及缺乏控制能力的人,心脏病的风险明显高于那些压力较小或能够成功应对压力的人强加心理要求但给工人提供少量控制的工作-例如厨师,服务员或医院有秩序的-似乎会滋生心脏病Thetypeabehaviorpattern行为模式的类型Whereassomejobsmaymakeheavierpsychologicaldemandsthanotherscertainsortsofpeopleregardlessoftheiroccupationseemtomakeheavypsychologicaldemandsonthemselves-andasaresultrunagreaterriskofheartdisease.peoplewithaparticularpersonalitystylecalledthecoronarypronebehaviorpatternandcommonlylabeledtypeAhavebeenfoundtobeespeciallysusceptibletoheartdisease.TypeApeoplearehard-drivingcompetitiveandaggressive.Theyexperiencegreattimeurgencyalwaystryingtodomoreandmoreinlessandlesstime.peoplewhohaveanoppositesortofpersonalityaretermedTypeB.othersarecategorizedsomewhereinbetween.虽然有些工作可能比别人有更重的心理需求,但某些人不论职业,似乎都对自己有沉重的心理要求,结果心脏病的风险就更大了具有特殊个性风格的人们被称为“冠状动脉易感行为模式”,通常被标记为“A型”,已被发现特别容易患上心脏病A型人开车难,好竞争,好斗他们经历着紧迫的时间,总是在越来越少的时间里越做越多那些具有相反性格的人被称为B型其他人被归类在两者之间ManystudieshaveconfirmedthatTypeApeoplearemoresusceptibletoheartdiseasethanTypeBPeople.OneprobablereasonisthatTypeApeopletendtomakegreaterdemandsonthemselvesandtoexposethemselvestomorestressfulsituationsthandoTypeBpeople.OnestudyofcollegefootballplayersfoundforexamplethatTypeAplayerswereratedbytheircoachesasplayingharderthanTypeBplayerswhentheywereinjured.TypeApeoplealsotendtohaveanunusuallyintensephysiologicalreactiontothestressthattheyencounter.WhentheyarefacedwithachallengingsituationtheytendtomanifesthigherbloodpressureandgreaterincreasesinheartrateandinthelevelofepinephrineintheirbloodthanTypeBpeople.Someresearchersbelievethatthisgreaterphysiologicalreactivityunderstress-sometimescalledhotreactivity-isthekeytothelinkbetweenthetypeapatternandheartdisease.许多研究证实A型人比B型人更容易患心脏病一个可能的原因是A型人比B型人更倾向于对自己提出更高的要求,使自己面临更多的压力例如,一项针对大学生足球运动员的研究发现,A型运动员被教练评为比受伤的B型运动员更努力A型人也往往对他们遇到的压力有非常强烈的生理反应当他们面对具有挑战性的情况时,他们的血液中的血压比B型人更高,心率和血液中的肾上腺素水平更高一些研究人员认为,压力下的这种更大的生理反应性-有时被称为热反应性-是模式类型与心脏病之间关系的关键Thebulkoftheresearchonpsychologicalfactorsinheartdiseasehasfocusedonmenratherthanwomen.evenamongwomenwhofacehighlystressfulsituationswhetheratworkorathometheriskofheartdiseaseremainsconsiderablylowerthanformen.Manybiologicalandpsychologicalfactorsmaycontributetothisdifference.Amongthemistheconsistentfindingthatalthoughwomentendtoexpresstheiremotionsmoreopenlythanmendotheirphysiologicalreactionstostresstendtobelessintense.intermsoftheriskofheartdiseasethenitmaybebettertoletonesemotionsshowoutwardlythantoburytheminsidewheretheymayeventuallycausedamagetoonesbody.心脏病心理因素的研究大部分集中在男性而不是女性即使是在工作和家庭中都面临高度压力的妇女中,心脏病的风险仍远低于男性许多生理和心理因素可能导致这种差异其中有一致的发现,尽管女性比男性更容易表达自己的情绪,但对压力的生理反应往往不那么激烈就心脏病的风险而言,最好是让情绪表现出来,而不是埋在心里,最终会对身体造成伤害Becauseofthelinksbetweenthetypeabehaviorpatternandheartdiseasevariousapproacheshavebeentakentochangingthispatternofbehavior.forexampleTypeApeoplehavebeentaughtrelaxationexercisesandothertechniquestomanagestress.Theyhavebeenencouragedtodevelopnonstressfulhobbiesandtheyhavebeengiventherapysessionstohelpchangetheirpressuredviewoftheworld.SomeprogramshavehadadegreeofsuccessinalteringthebehavioralandpsychologicalreactionofTypeAindividuals.Sofarhoweverthesuccesshasbeenlimited.TheTypeApatternseemstobelearnedoverthecourseofmanyyearsanditissupportedbysuchitisnotasimplemattertochangethispattern.indeedasJoanBorysenkonotesoneofthemoststressfulthingsforaTypeAistobetoldtorelax.”由于行为模式与心脏病之间的联系,已经采取了各种方法来改变这种行为模式例如,A型人已经被教授放松练习和其他技术来管理压力他们被鼓励发展非压抑性的爱好,他们接受了治疗课程来帮助改变他们对世界的压力一些项目在改变A型人的行为和心理反应方面取得了一定程度的成功但是到目前为止,成功是有限的A型模式似乎是在多年的学习过程中得到这样的支持,改变这种模式不是一件简单的事情事实上,正如琼·博里森科(JoanBorysenko)所指出的那样,“对A型来说,压力最大的事情之一就是放松”Reading2SMOKINGTherisksofsmokingTherisksofsmokingarehardlyawell-guardedsecret.TheSmokingCanbeHarmfultoyourhealth”warningisoneverypackofcigarettessoldintheunitedstatesand97percentofadultsandteensagreethatsmokingisassociatedwithlungcancer.Nearlyasmanypeoplealsoacknowledgesmoking’slinkswithotherrespiratoryailmentsandheartdisease.Ateen-to-the-gravesmokerhasa50percentchanceofdyingfromthehabit.accordingtotheWorldHealthOrganizationWHOthedeathratefromsmokingwillsoongrowto10millionpeopleintheworldeveryyearmeaningthathalfabillionpeoplealivetodaywillbekilledbytobacco.Eliminatingsmokingwouldincreaselifeexpectancyworldwidemorethananyotherpreventivemeasure.Itisnowonderthenthatbecausesmokingisgenerallyviewedasthemostimportantbehavioralrisktohealthithasbecomeacentralconcernofhealthpsychologists.吸烟的危险几乎不是一个保守的秘密在美国出售的每包香烟中,“吸烟对你的健康有害”是警告的,97%的成年人和青少年认为吸烟与肺癌有关,几乎同样多的人也承认吸烟与其他呼吸疾病和心脏病,青少年吸烟者有50%的机会死于这种习惯,根据世界卫生组织(WorldHealthOrganization,WHO)的统计,吸烟的死亡率很快会增长到全球1000万人这意味着今天活着的五亿人将会被吸烟所杀,与其他任何预防措施相比,消除吸烟将会增加全世界的预期寿命,这也就不足为奇了,因为吸烟一般被认为是最重要的行为风险健康,已经成为健康心理学家关注的重点WhydopeoplestartsmokingSmokingisapediatricdisease.Itusuallybeginsduringearlyadolescence.Itisespeciallycommonamongthosewhogetlowgradesschoolwhodropoutofschoolwhofeellessincontroloftheirfutureandwhosefriendsparentsandsiblingssmoke.Welearnbehaviorsthroughthemodelsweimitateandthesocialrewardswereceiveadolescentsareself-consciousandoftenthinktheworldiswatchingtheireverymove.sotheymaybeginsmokingtoimitatecoolmodelstogetthesocialrewardsofbeingacceptedbyothersmokersandtoprojectamatureimage.Typicallyteenswhostartsmokinghavefriendsaswhosmokeandsuggestitspleasuresandwhoofferthemcigarettesamongteenswhoseparentsandbestfriendsarenonsmokerstherateisclosetozero.吸烟是一种儿科疾病它通常在青春期初期开始低年级学生辍学,对自己的未来掌控不足,朋友,父母和兄弟姐妹吸烟的情况尤其普遍我们通过模仿的模式学习行为,获得社会回报,青少年是自觉的,常常认为世界正在观察他们的一举一动那么他们可能会开始吸烟,模仿酷酷的模特,获得被其他吸烟者接受的社会奖励,并且展示一个成熟的形象通常情况下,开始吸烟的青少年有朋友抽烟,并建议他们吸烟的快乐并提供他们香烟在父母和最好的朋友是非吸烟的青少年中,率接近于零WhydopeoplenotstopsmokingOnceaddictedtonicotinewefinditverydifficulttostop.Tobaccoproductsareasaddictiveasheroinandcocaine.StudiesinBritainandtheUniteStatesshowthatatleastoneinthreeofthosewhotrycigarettesbecomeshooked.Thisaddictiontosmokingispartlyphysiological;smokersbecomesusedtotheeffectsofnicotineandexperiencepainfulwithdrawalwhentheygiveitup.Inadditionpeoplebecomephysiologicallydependentonsmokingasawayofreducinganxietyandwithparticularsituations.Becauseofthesephysiologicalandpsychologicalforcesquittingisdifficultandtherelapserateishigh.一旦沉迷于尼古丁,我们发现很难停下来烟草产品与海洛因和可卡因一样令人上瘾英国和美国的研究显示,至少有三分之一的香烟受到吸引这种吸烟上瘾是部分生理上的;吸烟者习惯了尼古丁的效果,当他们放弃时会经历痛苦的戒烟此外,人们在生理上依赖吸烟作为减轻焦虑和特殊情况的一种方式由于这些生理和心理因素,戒烟是困难的,复发率很高HelpingsmokersquitPsychologistshavehelpeddevelopavarietyofbehaviormodificationtechniquestogetpeopletostopsmoking.Theseeffortsincludepublicwarningscounselingdrugtreatmentshypnosisaversiveconditioninge.g.makingpeoplesmokecigaretteaftercigaretteuntiltheyfeelsickandsupportgroups.Thegoodnewsisthatthesetreatmentsareofteneffective.thebadnewsisthatallbutone-fifthoftheparticipantseventuallysuccumbtothehabitagain.Forthosetryingtoquitbythemselvesthatiswithoutgroupsupporttheoddsareevenlower.心理学家已经帮助开发了各种行为改变技术来让人们戒烟这些努力包括公共警告,咨询,药物治疗,催眠,厌恶的调理(例如,让人们在香烟后抽烟直到他们感到不舒服)和支持团体好消息是,这些治疗往往是有效的坏消息是,只有五分之一的参与者最终再次屈服于这种习惯对于那些试图自行退出的人来说,没有群体的支持,这个可能性就更小了BetternewscomesfromtheCentersforDiseaseControlCDCwhichreportsthathalfofAmericanswhohaveeversmokeddomanagetoquiteventuallyafterrepeatedattempts.BecausesomanypeoplehavestoppedornotstartedsmokingthepercentageofAmericanCanadianandBritishsmokershasdroppedsharplyoverthelast30years.Thedrophasbeenmostpronouncedinthesecountriesinthemalesmokingratewhichnowbarelyexceedsthatofwomen.Thanksinparttosuchtrendsthedeathrateduetocoronaryheartdiseaseinthesecountrieshasdeclinedbyabout30percentsincethemid-1960ssmoking-relatedcancerdeathshavealsobeendecliningespeciallyamongmen.据美国疾病控制中心(CDC)报道,有好消息称,有一半的美国人在反复尝试后终于戒掉了烟因为有那么多人戒烟或不吸烟,美国、加拿大和英国烟民的比例在过去30年里急剧下降在这些国家,男性吸烟率下降最为明显,目前吸烟率几乎不超过女性部分由于这样的趋势,冠心病在这些国家的死亡率已经下降了约30%,自上世纪60年代开始吸烟有关的癌症死亡人数也在下降,尤其是男性Howeverdespitedecliningcigarettesalesamongeducated.Westernadultspercapitacigaretteconsumptionisnearanall-timehighworldwide.smokinghasskyrocketedinAsia.inchinawheremanymenbutnomorethan1in10womensmokecigaretteconsumptionsoaredfrom100billioncigarettesayearintheearly1950sto
1.6trillionatthecentury’send.InJapan35percent50percentofmenaresmokers.TodaycigarettecompaniesaretargetingdevelopingcountriessuchasKenyaandZimbabwewhereratesofcigaretteconsumptionhavebeenhistoricallylow.theWHOthereforehaspredictedthatinthenextthreedecades70percentoftobacco-relateddeathswilloccurindevelopingcountrieswherepeopletendtobelessawareofthedangersofsmoking.然而,尽管受过教育的卷烟销售下滑西方成年人的人均卷烟消费量接近全球历史最高水平吸烟在亚洲迅速蔓延在中国,男人很多,但是在十几岁的女人中,每十年只有十分之一的女人吸烟的消费量从五十年代初期的每年1000亿支,到本世纪末的
1.6万亿在日本,35%(50%的男性)是吸烟者今天,卷烟公司正在瞄准发展中国家,比如肯尼亚和津巴布韦,那里的卷烟消费率历来都很低世卫组织因此预测,在今后三十年中,70%与烟草有关的死亡将发生在发展中国家,人们往往不太了解吸烟的危害PreventingsmokingItisvastlyeasiertobeginsmokingthanonceaddictedtostop.Socialandpsychologicalanalysesofwhyadolescentsstartsmokinghavehelpedgenerateeducationalprogramsthatteacherscanimplementeasilyandinexpensively.AccordingtotheNationalCancerInstituteThekeyingredientsofsuchprogramsare:InformationabouttheeffectsofsmokingInformationaboutpeerparentandmediainfluencesTraininginrefusalskillsthroughmodelingandrole-playingTheinformationalingredientscanalsobeofferedthroughmassmedia.In1998Floridainitiatedamassiveyouth-orientedmediacampaigntoreducetheallureofsmokingandbyearly1999thenumberof12to14year-oldswhoreportedsmokinghaddroppedby19percentfromthepreviousyear.开始吸烟比一旦沉迷于戒烟容易得多为什么青少年开始吸烟的社会和心理分析帮助制定教育计划,教师可以轻松便宜地执行根据国立癌症研究所的资料,这些项目的主要成分是有关吸烟影响的信息关于同伴,父母和媒体影响的信息通过建模和角色扮演训练拒绝技能信息成分也可以通过大众媒体提供1998年,佛罗里达发起了一场大规模青年导向的媒体运动,以减少吸烟的吸引力,到1999年年初,报告吸烟的12-14岁的人数比上一年下降了19%Thereisanotherwaytodiscouragesmoking:Makeitmoreimmediatelycostly.Themosteffectiverewardsandpunishmentsareimmediate.Whenthedelayedrewardsofexercisecompetewiththeimmediatediscomfortofdoingsotheimmediateconsequenceswinout.Likewiseevenknowingthatinthelongrunsmokingisoftensuicidalbehaviormanycontinuetosmoke.Ifwecouldonlyraisetheimmediatecostsconsumptionwouldsurelygodown.thisisinfactwhathappenedwhenthepriceofcigarettesintheunitedstateswentupby70percentbetween1997and
2001.followingthisincreaseteensmokingbegandecliningespeciallyinstatesthatalsohadstrongsmoking-preventionprogram.还有另一种阻止吸烟的方法使它立即更加昂贵最有效的奖惩是立竿见影的当运动的延迟回报与立即的不适竞争时,立即的结果会胜出同样,即使知道长期吸烟往往是自杀行为,许多人仍然吸烟如果我们只能提高眼前的成本,消费肯定会下降事实上,在1997到2001年间,美国的香烟价格上涨了70%随着这一增长,青少年吸烟开始下降,特别是在那些也有强有力的吸烟预防计划的州Reading3HEALTHFULBEHAVIORInthissection.westudytwoverydifferentapproachestomanagingstressandthustheconditionsforgreaterhealthfulness:exerciseandspirituality.在这个部分我们研究两种截然不同的方法来管理压力,从而增强健康的条件锻炼和灵性ExerciseManystudiessuggestthataerobicexercisethatisexercisethatincreasesheartandlungfitnesssuchasjoggingswimmingandbikingcanreducestressdepressionandanxiety.Ina2002surveyforexamplenon-exercisersweretwiceaslikelyasexerciserstoreportbeingnottoohappy.”butifwestatethisobservationtheotherwayaround–thatstressedanddepressedpeopleexerciseless-causeandeffectbecomeunclear.许多研究表明,有氧运动,即增加心肺功能的运动,如慢跑,游泳和骑自行车,可减轻压力,抑郁和焦虑例如,在2002年的一项调查中,非锻炼者可能是锻炼者被报告“不太高兴”的两倍但是如果我们用相反的观点来表达这种观察-那些压力和抑郁的人们锻炼的次数减少的原因和影响就不清楚了..Experimentshaveresolvedthisambiguity.Inoneexperimentresearchersrandomlyassignedone-thirdofmildlydepressedfemalecollegestudentstoaprogramofaerobicexerciseandanotherthirdtoatreatmentofrelaxationexercisestheremainingthird-thecontrolgroup-receivednotreatment.AsFigure
2.3shows10weekslaterthewomenintheaerobicexercisegroupreportedthegreatestdecreaseindepression.实验已经解决了这种模棱两可的说法在一项实验中,研究人员随机分配了三分之一的轻度抑郁的女大学生参加有氧运动,另外三分之一接受了放松训练,剩下的三分之一对照组没有接受任何治疗如图
2.3所示,10周后,有氧运动组的女性报告抑郁症的降幅最大Morethan150otherstudiesconfirmthatexercisereducesdepressionandanxietyandcanthereforebeausefuladditiontotreatmentthatincludesantidepressantdrugsandpsychotherapy.Infactsomeresearchsuggeststhatexerciseisbetterthandrugsinpreventingsymptomrecurrence.另有150多项研究证实,运动可以减轻抑郁和焦虑,因此可以成为包括抗抑郁药物和心理治疗在内的治疗的有益补充事实上,一些研究表明,运动在预防症状复发方面比药物好Researchersarenowwonderingwhyaerobicexercisealleviatesnegativesemotions.Researchersknowthatexercisereleasescertainchemicalsinthebody’sbloodstreamthatcanaffectofemotions.Howevertheyalsowonderwhetherthebenefitsofexerciseareasideeffectofthesoundsleepthatpeopleexperienceafterexerciseorperhapsasenseofaccomplishmentorthefactthatone’simprovedphysiquemayinfluenceone’semotionalstateandself-esteem.研究人员现在想知道为什么有氧运动能够减轻负面情绪研究人员知道,运动会释放身体血液中可能影响情绪的某些化学物质然而,他们也不知道运动的好处是否是人们在锻炼后所经历的健全睡眠的副作用,或者是成就感,或者一个人的体质改善会影响他的情绪状态和自尊Researchcertainlyrevealsthatexercisenotonlyboostsourmoodbutalsostrengthenstheheartincreasesbloodflowkeepsbloodvesselsopenandlowersbothbloodpressureandthebloodpressurereactiontostress.Comparedwithinactiveadultspeoplewhoexercisesufferhalfasmanyheartattacks.OnestudythatfollowedFinnishtwinsfornearly20yearsshowedthatoccasionalexercisereducedtheriskofdeathby29percentcomparedwithnoexercise.Dailyexercisereduceddeathriskby43percent.Byoneestimatesmoderateexerciseaddstwoyearstoone’sexpectedlife.研究表明,锻炼不仅能增强我们的情绪,还能增强心脏,增加血液流动,保持血管通畅,同时降低血压和血压对压力的反应与不运动的成年人相比,运动者患心脏病的次数是为一半一项对芬兰双胞胎进行了近20年的研究表明,与不锻炼相比,偶尔锻炼能降低29%的死亡风险每日锻炼减少43%的死亡风险据估计,适度的锻炼会使你的预期寿命延长两年Spirituality.Throughouthistoryreligionandmedicinehavejoinedforcesincaringforthesick.Hospitalswhichwerefirstestablishedinmonasteriesoftencarriedthenameofsaints.Howeverasmedicalsciencematuredhealingandreligiondiverged.RatherthanaskingGodtohealtheirsickchildrenfromsmallpoxpeoplewereabletovaccinatethem.Ratherthanseekingaspiritualhealerwhenburningwithafeverpeoplewereabletouseantibiotics.Recentlyhoweverreligionandhealinghavebeenconvergingonceagain.在整个历史上,宗教和医学联手照顾病人最初在修道院建立的医院常常被称为圣人然而,随着医学成熟,治疗和宗教分离人们没有要求上帝医治他们的天花病患儿童,而是给他们接种疫苗人们在发烧时使用抗生素,而不是寻找精神治疗者然而最近宗教和治疗又一次聚合OftheUnitedstates135medicalschools101offeredspiritualityandhealthcoursesin2005upfromfivein
1992.Since1995HarvardMedicalSchoolhasannuallyattracted1000to
2.000healthprofessionalstoitsSpiritualityandHealinginMedicaineconferences.在美国的135所医学院中,101所在2005年提供了灵性和健康课程,1992年为5所自1995年以来,哈佛医学院每年吸引1000至2000名卫生专业人员参加在医学院会议上的灵性和治疗DukeUniversityhasestablishedaCenterforSpiritualityTheologyandHealth.Asurveyfoundthat99percentofU.S.familyphysiciansagreedthat“personalprayermeditationorotherspiritualpractices”canenhancemedicaltreatment.杜克大学建立了一个灵性,神学和健康中心一项调查发现,99%的美国家庭医生认为“个人祷告冥想或其他精神疗法”可以提高医疗水平IstherefireunderneathallthissmokeMorethan
1.000sudieshavesoughttocorrelatethefaithfactorwithhealth.AU.S.NationalHealthInterviewsurveyin1999followed21104peopleovereightyears.Aftercontrollingforagesexraceandreligionresearchersfoundthatnon-attendeesofreligiouswere
1.87timesmorelikelytohavediedthanthoseattendingmorethanweekly.Thistranslatedintoalifeexpectancyatage20of83yearsforfrequentattendeesand75yearsforinfrequentattendees.这烟雾下面有火吗?超过
1.000个研究试图将信仰因素与健康联系起来1999年美国全国健康访问调查8年来有21104人研究人员在控制了年龄,性别,种族和宗教信仰之后,发现没有参加宗教活动的人比参加每周活动的人多
1.87倍这可以转化为20岁的经常参与者的预期寿命为83岁和不频繁的参与者为75岁Thesefindingsindicatethatasapredictorofheathandlongevityreligiousinvolvementrivalsnonsmokingandexerciseeffects.Suchfindingsdemandexplanation.CanyouimaginewhatmightaccountforthecorrelationConsideroneobviousPossibility:Womenaremorereligiouslyactivethanmenandwomenoutlivemen.Soperhapsreligiousinvolvementismerelyanexpressionofthegendereffectonlongevity.Secondreligiouslyactivepeoplehavehealthierlifestyles;forexampletheysmokeanddrinkless.Thirdsocialsupportisanothervariablethatmayhelpexplainthefaithfactor.Forallthemajororganizedreligionsintheworldfaithisnotsolospiritualitybutacommunalexperiencesupportnetworksexistforpeoplewhenmisfortunestrikes.Finallyinmanyveryreligiouscommunitiesdivorcewhichishighlystressfulisalmostnonexistent.这些发现表明,宗教参与对手不吸烟和锻炼的影响可以作为健康长寿的一个预测因素这样的发现需要解释你能想象什么可能解释相关性?考虑一个明显的可能性女性比男性更具宗教积极性,女性比男性更活跃也许宗教介入仅仅是对长寿的性别影响的一种表现其次,宗教活跃的人有更健康的生活方式;例如,他们抽烟喝水较少第三,社会支持是另一个可能有助于解释信仰因素的变量对于世界上所有主要的有组织的宗教来说,信仰并不是单独的灵性,而是在遭遇不幸的时候有一个共同的经验支持网络最后,在很多非常宗教的社区里,很大压力的离婚几乎是不存在的ButevenaftercontrollingforgenderunhealthfulbehaviorssocialtiesanddivorcethemortalitystudiesfindmuchofthemortalityreductionremainingResearchersthereforespeculatethatasetofvariablesexistthatmayexplainthis.thesevariablesincludethewell-beingassociatedwithacoherentworldviewasenseofhopeforthelong-termfuturefeelingsofultimateacceptanceandtherelaxedmeditationofprayer.thesevariablesmightalsoexplainanotherrecentfindingamongthereligiouslyactivehealthierimmunefunctioningandfewerhospitaladmissions.但是,即使在控制了性别,不健康的行为,社会关系和离婚后,死亡率研究发现大部分死亡率研究都发现大部分死亡率下降研究人员因此推测存在一组可以解释这一点的变量这些变量包括与一个观点一致的幸福感,对长期未来的希望感,最终接受的感觉以及轻松的祈祷冥想这些变量也可能解释了另一个近期发现的宗教活跃者健康的免疫功能和更少的住院病例Althoughthereligion-healthcorrelationisyettobefullyexplainedHaroldPincusDeputyMedicalDirectoroftheAmericanPsychiatryAssociationbelievesthesefindingshavemadeclearthatanyoneinvolvedinprovidinghealthcareservicescannotignoretheimportantconnectionbetweenspiritualityreligionandhealth.”Let’ssummarizethecontentsofthisunit:sustainedemotionalreactionstostressfuleventscanleadtosickness.howeverwecancopewithstressorsbyproblemsolvingoremotionalcopingandwebymakingourselvesemotionallyandphysicallystronger.美国精神病学协会副主任医师哈罗德•平卡斯(HaroldPincus)认为,尽管宗教与健康之间的相关性尚未得到充分解释,但这些研究结果“已经明确指出,任何参与提供医疗服务的人都不能忽视精神,宗教,和健康“让我们总结一下这个单元的内容对压力事件持续的情绪反应会导致疾病然而,我们可以通过解决问题或情绪应对来应对压力,而我们可以使自己在情绪上和身体上更强大Unit3Reading1GESTURALCOMMUNICATION手势沟通IntroductionNonverbalcommunicationiscommunicationwithoutwords.Youcommunicatenonverballywhenyougesturesmileorfrownwidenyoureyesmoveyourchairclosertosomeonewearjewelrytouchsomeoneorraiseyourvocalvolumeevenwhenyousaynothing.Yourabilitytousenonverbalcommunicationeffectivelycanyieldtwomajorbenefits.Firstthegreateryourabilitytosendandreceivenonverbalsignalsthehigheryourattractionpopularityandpsychosocialwell-beingarelikelytobe.Secondthegreateryournonverbalkillsthemoresuccessfulyouarelikelytobeinawidevarietyofinterpersonalcommunicationsituationsincludingbusinesscommunicationteacherstudentcommunicationinterculturalcommunicationcourtroomcommunicationandincloserelationshipspoliticsandhealthcare.Inthisunitwewilllookatfivedifferentchannelsofnonverbalcommunication:1gesturalcommunication2facialcommunication3eyecommunication4touchcommunicationand5spatialmessages.Webeginourstudyofnonverbalmessagesbyconsideringgesturalcommunication.非语言沟通是无言的沟通你会非语言交流,当你做手势,微笑或皱眉时,张开双眼,把你的椅子靠近某个人,佩戴首饰,触摸某人,或者提高你的声音的音量,即使你什么都不说您有效地使用非语言沟通的能力可以产生两大好处首先,发送和接收非语言信号的能力越大,吸引力,受欢迎程度和社会心理健康水平就越高其次,非言语性的攻击越多,在各种人际交往情况下,包括商业交流,师生交流,跨文化交际,法庭交流,以及密切的关系,政治和医疗保健中,你可能会越成功在这个单元中,我们将看五种不同的非语言交流渠道
(1)手势沟通,
(2)面部交流,
(3)眼睛交流,
(4)触摸交流,
(5)空间信息我们通过考虑手势沟通开始研究非语言信息TypesofgesturesAnespeciallyusefulclassificationinkinesicsthestudyofcommunicationthroughbodymovementidentifiesfivetypesofgestures:emblemsillustratorsaffectdisplaysregulatorsandadaptors.运动学中一个特别有用的分类,通过身体运动进行交流的研究,确定了五种类型的手势象征插画家,情感的展示,监管和编剧EmblemsEmblemsaresubstitutesforwords;theyarebodymovementsthathaveratherspecifictranslationssuchasthenonverbalsignsforOK,PeaceComehereGoawayWhome”“Bequiet”“I’mwarningyou”“I’mtired”“anditscold.”Emblemsareasarbitraryasanywordsinanylanguage.Consequentlyyourpresentculturesemblemsarenotnecessarilythesameasyourculturesemblemsof300yearsagoorthesameastheemblemsofothercultures.Forexamplethesignmadebyformingacirclewiththethumbandtheforefingermaymean“nothing”or“zero”inFrance“money”inJapanandsomethingsexualincertainsouthernEuropeancultures.ButjustastheEnglishlanguageisspreadingthroughouttheworldsotooistheEnglishnonverballanguage.TheAmericanuseofthisemblemtomeanOKisspreadingjustasfastasforexampleEnglishtechnicalandscientificterms.标志是文字的替代品;他们指身体运动,有非常具体的翻译,如非语言符号OK、和平、来这里,“走开,谁,我?”“安静”,“我警告你”,“我累了,“”而且很冷“标志和任何一种语言一样随心所欲,因此,你现在的文化标志不一定是你300年前的文化标志或者是其他文化的象征,例如,用拇指和食指形成圆圈的标志可能意味着法国的“无”,“零”,日本的“金钱”,以及某些南欧文化中的某种性的东西,但正如英语在整个世界传播,英语也是非语言的,例如美国人使用这个标志的意思是“OK”,正如英语技术和科学术语一样快地传播IllustratorsIllustratorsaccompanyandliterallyillustrateverbalmessages.Illustratorsmakeyourcommunicationsmore.vividandhelptomaintainyourlistenersattention.Theyalsohelptoclarifyandintensifyyourverbalmessages.InsayingLet’sgoupforexample.youprobablymoveyourheadandperhapsyourfingerinanupwarddirection.Indescribingacircleorasquareyoumorethanlikemakecircularorsquaremovementswithyourhands.Researchpointstoanotheradvantageofillustrators:Theyincreaseyourabilitytoremember.Peoplewhoillustratedtheirverbalmessageswithgesturesrememberedabout20percentmorethanthosewhodidnotgesture.Weareawareofillustratorsonlypartofthetime;attimestheymayhavetobebroughttoourattentionandourawareness.Illustratorsaremoreuniversalthanemblems:theywillberecognizedandunderstoodbymembersofmoreculturesthanwillemblems.插画家陪同和字面言语消息插画使您的沟通更生动,有助于保持听众的注意力他们也有助于澄清和加强你的语言信息比如说比方说,“我们走吧”你可能会移动你的头,也许你的手指向上在描述一个圆形或方形时,你更喜欢用手做圆形或方形运动研究指出插画的优点他们增加了记忆的能力,那些用手势表达口头信息的人比那些不表示手势的人记得多20%,我们只知道插画的一部分时间,有时可能需要带上我们的注意力和我们的意识,插画比标志更普遍他们将会比标志被更多文化的成员所认可和理解AffectdisplaysAffectdisplaysarethemovementsofthefacialareathatconveyemotionalmeaning-theexpressionsthatshowangerandfear,happinessandsurpriseandeagernessandfatigue.TheyarethefacialexpressionsthatshowyourtruefeelingswhenyouaretryingtopresentafalseimageandthatleadpeopletosayYoulookangrywhatswrong”howeverconsciouslycontrolaffectdisplaysasactorsdowhentheplayarole.Affectdisplaysmaybeunintentionalaswhentheyshowyourtruefeelingsorintentionalaswhenyouwanttoshowangerorlove.情感展示是是面部区域的运动,传达情绪的含义,表达愤怒和恐惧、快乐、惊喜、渴望和疲劳的表情面部表情,表达自己的真实感受当你试图呈现一个虚假的形象,并引导人们说“你看起来生气怎么了?”,然而,有意识地控制情感展示,就像演员在扮演角色时所做的一样情感展示可能是无意的(如当他们表现出你的真实感受时),或有意(当你想表现出愤怒或爱)RegulatorsRegulatorsmonitormaintainorcontrolthespeakingofanotherindividual.Whenyoulistentoanotheryouarenotpassive;younodyourheadpurseyourlipsadjustyoureyefocusandmakevariousparalinguisticsoundssuchas“mm-mm”or“tsk”.Regulatorsareculture-bound:Eachculturedevelopsitsownrulesfortheregulationofconversation.Regulatorsalsoincludesuchbroadmovementsasshakingyourheadtoshowdisbelieftoshowthatyouwanttohearmore.监管机构监督,维护或控制另一个人的言谈当你听别人的时候,你不是被动的;你点头,舔嘴唇,调整你的眼睛的焦点,并发出各种副语言声音,如“mm-mm”或“啧”监管机构是有文化约束的每一种文化都有自己的规则来规范谈话监管机构还包括如摇头晃脑,以显示难以置信,以表明你想听到更多Regulatorscommunicatewhatyouexpectorwantspeakerstodoastheyaretalking:forexampleKeepgoing“Tellmewhathappened”1dontbelievethat.AreyousureSpeedupand“Slowdown.”Speakersoftenreceivethesenonverbalbehaviorswithoutbeingconsciouslyawareofthem.Dependingontheirdegreeofsensitivityspeakersmodifytheirspeakingbehaviorinaccordancewiththeseregulators.监管机构传达你期望的内容,或者要求发言者在发言时做的事情,例如“继续前进”,“告诉我发生了什么事情”,“我不相信,你确定吗?“加快速度”和“放缓速度”演讲者经常收到这些非言语行为而没有意识到这些行为根据他们的敏感程度,发言者根据这些监管者修改他们的发言行为AdaptorsAdaptorssatisfysomeneedandusuallyoccurwithoutconsciousawareness;theyareunintentionalmovementsthatusuallygounnoticed.Researchersidentifythreemaintypesofadaptorsbasedontheirfocusdirectionortarget:self-adaptorsalter-adaptorsandobject-adaptors.适配器满足一些需求,通常在没有意识的情况下发生它们是无意的运动,通常不被人注意研究人员根据焦点,方向或目标确定三种主要类型的适配器自适应器,变更适配器和对象适配器Self-adaptorsusuallysatisfyaphysicalneedgenerallyservingtomakeyoumorecomfortable;examplesincludescratchingyourheadtorelieveanitchmoisteningyourlipsbecausetheyfeeldryorpushingyourhairoutofyoureyes.Whentheseadaptorsoccurinprivatetheyoccurintheyentiretyyouscratchyourheaduntiltheitchisgone.Butinpublictheseadaptorsusuallyoccurinabbreviatedform.WhenpeoplearewatchingyouforexampleYoumightputyourfingerstoyourheadandmovethemaroundabitbutprobablynotscratchwiththesamevigoraswheninprivate.自适配器通常满足生理需要,一般用来使你更舒适;例子包括刮你的头来止痒,滋润你的嘴唇,因为他们感到干燥,或将你的头发从你的眼睛前拿开当这些适配器是私人发生的时候,它们会发生在你整个头上,直到发痒消失但在公开场合,这些适配器通常以简化的形式出现例如,当人们注视着你时,你可能会把手指放在头上,稍微移动一下,但可能不会像在私密的时候一样搔痒Alter-adaptorsarethebodymovementsyoumakeinresponsetoyourcurrentinteractions.Examplesincludecrossingyourarmsoveryourchestwhensomeoneunpleasantapproachesmovingclosertosomeoneyoulike.更改适配器是您为响应当前的交互而作出的身体动作例如,当有人不愉快的方法靠近你喜欢的人时,将双臂交叉在胸前Object-adaptorsaremovementsinvolveyourmanipulationofsomeobject.Frequentlyobservedexamplesincludepunchingholesinordrawingonapieceofpaperclickingaballpointpenorchewingonapencil.Object-adaptorsareusuallysignsofnegative;forexampleyouemitmoreadaptorswhenyoufeelhostilethanwhenyoufeelfriendly.Furtherasanxietyanduneasinessincreasesodoesfrequencyofobject-adaptors.对象适配器是运动涉及你的某些对象的操纵经常观察到的例子包括在纸上打孔或在纸上画图,点击圆珠笔或咀嚼铅笔对象适配器通常是负面的迹象;例如,当你感到敌意比当你感到友好时散发出更多的适配器而且,随着焦虑和不安,对象适配器的频率也在增加2FACIALCOMMUNICATION面部交流Facialexpressions面部表情Throughoutyourinterpersonalinteractionsyourfacecommunicatesespeciallysignalingyouremotions.InfactfacialmovementsaloneseemtocommunicatethedegreeofpleasantnessagreementandsympathyaPersonfeels;therestofthebodydoesn’tprovideanyadditionalinformation.Forotheraspectshowever-forexampletheintensitywithwhichanemotionisfelt-bothfacialandbodilycuesareused.在整个人际交往过程中,你的脸沟通,特别能表达你的情绪事实上,面部表情似乎只是表达一个人所感受到的愉悦,同意和同情的程度;身体的其余部分不提供任何额外的信息然而,对于其他方面,例如,情绪感受的强度-面部和身体暗示都被使用Somenonverbal-communicationresearchersclaimthatfacialmovementsmaycommunicateatleastthefollowingeightemotionstohappinesssurprisefearangersadnessdisgustcontemptandinterest.Othersproposethatinadditionfacialmovementsmaycommunicatebewildermentanddetermination.一些非语言交流的研究人员声称,脸部运动至少可以传达以下八种情绪幸福,惊奇,恐惧,愤怒,悲伤,厌恶,蔑视和兴趣另一些人则建议,此外,面部运动可能会传达迷惑和决心ofcoursesomeemotionsareeasiertocommunicatethanothers.forexampleinonestudyhappinesswasjudgedwithanaccuracyrangingfrom55percentto100percentsurprisefrom38percentto86percentandsadnessfrom19percentto88percent.Researchfindsthatwomenandgirlsaremoreaccuratejudgesoffacialemotionalexpressionsthanmenandboys.当然,有些情绪比别人更容易沟通例如,在一项研究中,快乐的判断准确率在55%到100%之间,惊奇从38%到86%,悲伤从19%到88%不等研究发现,女性和女性比男性和男性对面部表情的判断更准确Asyouhaveprobablyexperiencedyoumayinterpretthesamefacialexpressionsdifferentlydependingonthecontextinwhichtheyoccur.Forexampleinaclassicstudywhenasmilingfacewaspresentedlookingataglumfacethesmilingfacewasjudgedtobevicious.Butwhenthesamesmilingfacewaspresentedlookingatafrowningfaceitwasjudgedtobepeacefulandfriendly.Ingeneralnotessurprisinglypeoplewhosmilearejudgedtobemorelikableandmoreapproachablethanpeoplewhodontsmileorpeoplewhopretendtosmile.Andwomenperceivemenwhoaresmiledatbyotherwomenasbeingmoreattractivethanmenwhoarenotsmiledat.Butmen-perhapsbeingmorecompetitive-perceivemenwhomwomensmileatasbeinglessattractivethanmenwhoarenotsmiledat.正如你可能已经经历的那样,你可以根据它们出现的环境来解释相同的面部表情的不同例如,在一个经典的研究中,当笑容呈现在一张阴沉的脸上时,笑脸被判断为是恶毒的但是当看到一张皱着眉头的脸上露出同样的笑容时,被认为是和平友善的一般而言,令人惊讶的是,笑的人被认为比不笑的人或假装微笑的人更可爱,更平易近人而女人则认为被其他女人笑的男人比不被笑的男人更有吸引力但是,男人-也许更具竞争力-认为女人所笑的男人比不笑的男人更没有吸引力Facialmanagement面部管理Inthesamewaythatyoulearnedthenonverbalsystemofcommunicationunconsciouslyasachildyoualsolearnedcertainfacialmanagementtechniquesthatenableyoutocommunicateyourfeelingstoachievetheeffectyouwant-forexampletohidecertainemotionsandtoemphasizeothers.Consideryourownuseofsuchfacialtechniques.Asyoudosothinkaboutwhenyoumightdothefollowing.就像你小时候无意识地学习了非语言沟通系统一样,你也学习了一些面部管理技巧,使你能够表达自己的感受,达到你想要的效果-例如,隐藏某些情绪,强调其他情绪考虑你自己使用这种面部技术当你这样做的时候,想想你什么时候可以做下面的事情Intensifyyourfacialexpressionaswhenyouexaggerateyoursurprisewhenfriendsthrowyouasurpriseparty.加强你的面部表情,就像你夸大你的惊喜,当朋友给你一个惊喜派对时Deintensifyyourfacialexpressionaswhenyoucoverupyourownjoyinthepresenceofafriendwhodidntreceivesuchgoodnews.加强你的面部表情,就像你在一个没有收到这样的好消息的朋友面前掩饰自己的喜悦一样Neutralizeyourfacialexpressionaswhenyoucoverupyoursadnesstokeepfromdepressingothers.中和你的面部表情,就像你掩饰自己的悲伤,以免压抑他人Maskyourfacialexpressionaswhenyouexpresshappinessordertocoverupyourdisappointmentatnotreceivingthegiftyouexpected.掩盖你的面部表情,就像当你表达快乐的时候,为了掩饰你没有收到你所期待的礼物而失望Thesefacialmanagementtechniqueshelpyoudisplayemotionsinsociallyacceptableways.Forexamplewhensomeonegetsbadnewsaboutwhichyousecretlytakepleasurethedisplayrulesdictatethatyoufrownandotherwisenonverballysignalyoursorrow.Ifyouplacefirstinaraceandyourbestfriendbarelyfinishesthedisplayrulesrequirethatyouminimizeyourexpressionofpleasureinwinningandavoidsignsofgloating.Ifyouviolatethesedisplayrulesyou’llbejudgedasinsensitive.Soalthoughfacialmanagementtechniquesmaybedeceptivetheyarealsoexpected-andinfactrequiredbytherulesofpoliteinteraction.这些面部管理技巧可以帮助你以社会可接受的方式展示情感例如,当有人得到你偷偷高兴的坏消息时,显示规则指示你皱眉,否则非语言地表示你的悲伤如果你第一次参加比赛,你最好的朋友几乎没有完成,显示规则要求你最大限度地减少获胜的乐趣,并避免出现幸灾乐祸的迹象如果您违反这些显示规则,您将被判定为不敏感所以,虽然面部管理技巧可能是欺骗性的,但它们也是可以预料到的-事实上,礼貌互动的规则是必需的FacialfeedbackWhenyouexpressemotionsfaciallyafeedbackeffectisobserved.Thisfindinghasgivenrisetothefacialfeedbackhypothesiswhichholdsthatyourfacialexpressionsinfluenceyourownphysiologicalarousal.Forexampleinonestudyparticipantsheldapenintheirteethtosimulateasadexpressionandthenratedaseriesofphotographs.Resultsshowedthatmimickingasadexpressionactuallyincreasedthedegreeofsadnessthesubjectsreportedwhenviewingthephotographs.当你表达情绪表面,反馈效果是观察这一发现引起了面部反馈假说,认为你的面部表情影响你自己的生理唤醒例如,在一项研究中,参与者在他们的牙齿中拿着一支笔来模拟悲伤的表情,然后对一系列照片进行评分观看照片时,受试者报告的结果显示,模仿悲伤表情实际上增加了悲伤程度Generallyresearchfindsthatfacialexpressionscanproduceorheightenfeelingsofsadnessfeardisgustandanger.Butthiseffectdoesnotoccurwithallemotions;smilingforexamplewon’tmakeyoufeelhappier.Andifyourefeelingsadsmilingisnotlikelytoreplaceyoursadnesswithhappiness.Areasonableconclusionseemstobethatyourfacialexpressionscaninfluencesomefeelingsbutnotothers.一般来说,研究发现面部表情可以产生或增加悲伤,恐惧,厌恶和愤怒的感觉但是,这种效应并不是所有的情绪都会发生例如,微笑不会让你感到更快乐如果你感到难过,微笑不可能用快乐取代你的悲伤一个合理的结论似乎是你的面部表情可以影响一些感觉,而不是其他的Reading3EYECOMMUNICATIONOcculesisisthestudyofmessagescommunicatedbytheeyes.Thesemessagesvarydependingonthedurationdirectionandqualityoftheeyebehavior.Forexampleineveryculturethereareratherstrictthoughunstatedrulesforproperdurationofeyecontact.InmuchofEnglandandtheUnitedStatesforexampletheaveragelengthofgazeis
2.95seconds.Theaveragelengthofmutualgazetwopersonsgazingateachotheris
1.18seconds.Whenthedurationofeyecontactisshorterthan
1.18secondsyoumaythinkthepersonisuninterestedshyorpreoccupied.Whentheappropriateamountoftimeisexceededyoumayperceivethisasshowinghighinterest.InmuchoftheUnitedStatesdirecteyecontactIsconsideredanexpressionofhonestyandforthrightness.ButtheJapaneseoftenvieweyecontactaslackofrespect.TheJapanesewillglanceattheotherpersonsfacerarelyandthenonlyforveryshortperiods.InmanyHispanicculturesdirecteyecontactsignifiesasCertainequalityandsoshouldbeavoidedbysaychildrenwhenspeakingtoapersoninauthority.TryvisualizingthepotentialmisunderstandingthateyecommunicationalonecouldcreatewhenpeoplefromTokyoSanFranciscoandSanJuantrytocommunicate.Occulesis是对眼睛传达的信息的研究这些消息根据眼睛行为的持续时间,方向和质量而变化例如,在每一种文化中,对眼接触时间都有相当严格的,虽没有规定例如在英国和美国的大部分地区,平均注视时间是
2.95秒相互凝视的平均长度(两人相互凝视)是
1.18秒当目光接触的持续时间短于
1.18秒时,你可能会认为这个人不感兴趣,害羞或者专注当超过适当的时间时,您可能会认为这显示出高度的兴趣在美国的很多地方,直接的目光交流被认为是诚实和坦率的表现但日本人往往把目光接触视为缺乏尊重日本人很少会看到他人的脸,只有很短的时间在许多西班牙裔文化中,直接的目光接触表示为“一定的平等”,所以在与权威人士交谈时,孩子应避免这么做试着想象一下当东京,旧金山和圣胡安的人们试图沟通时,只有眼神交流会产生潜在误解Thedirectionofthecyealsocommunicates.Generallywhencommunicatingwithanotherpersonyouwillglancealternativelyattheotherpersonsfacethenawaythenagainatthefaceandsoon.Whenthesedirectionalrulesarebrokendifferentmeaningsarecommunicated-abnormallyhighorlowinterestself-consciousnessnervousnessovertheinteractionandsoon.Thequalityofthegaze-howwideornarrowyoureyesgetduringtheinteraction–alsocommunicatesmeaningespeciallyinterestlevelandsuchemotionsassurprisefearanddisgust.眼睛的方向也是一种交流一般来说,在和别人交流的时候,你会看着其他人的脸,然后再很快的看一次当这些方向性规则被打破时,不同的意义被传达-通常高或低的兴趣,自我意识,对交往的紧张等等注视的质量-在交互过程中你的眼睛有多宽或多少-也传达意义,尤其是兴趣水平和惊喜,恐惧和厌恶等情绪Studiesalsoshowthatlistenersgazeatspeakersmorethanspeakersgazeatlisteners.Thepercentageofinteractiontimespentgazingwhilelisteningforexamplerangesfrom62Percentto75percent;thePercentageoftimespentgazingwhiletalkinghoweverrangesfrom38to41percent.Whenthesepercentagesarereversed-whenaspeakergazesatthelistenerforlongerthannormalperiodsorwhenthelistenergazesatthespeakerforshorterthannormalperiodstheconversationalinteractionbecomesawkward.研究还表明,听众凝视演讲者比听众更注重听众在聆听时所花费的互动时间的百分比例如从62%到75%;然而,谈话时注视时间的百分比在38%到41%之间-当说话者注视听众的时间超过“正常”时间,或者当听众凝视说话者的时间短于“正常”时间时,会话交互变得尴尬这些百分比与前者相反Eyecontactservesseveralimportantfunctions.眼睛接触有几个重要的功能Tomonitorfeedback.Forexamplewhenyoutalkwithothersyoulookatthemintentlyandtrytounderstandtheirreactiontowhatyouaresaying.Youtrytoreadtheirfeedbackandonthisbasisyouadjustwhatyousay.Asyoucanimaginesuccessfulreadingsoffeedbackwillhelpconsiderablyinyouroveralleffectiveness.监控反馈例如,当你和别人交谈时,你要专心地看着他们,试着理解他们对你所说的话的反应您尝试阅读他们的反馈意见,并在此基础上调整您的意见正如你可以想象的,成功的反馈阅读将大大有助于你的整体效果Tosecureattention.Whenyouspeakwithtwoorthreeotherpeopleyoumaintaineyecontacttosecuretheattentionandinterestofyourlisteners.Whensomeonefailstopayyoutheattentionthatyouwantyouprobablyincreaseyoureyecontacthopingthatthisincreaseattention.为了获得关注当你和其他两三个人说话时,你会保持目光接触,以保证听众的注意力和兴趣当有人不给你你期望的注意,你可能会增加你的目光接触,希望这可以增加注意力Toregulatetheconversation.Eyecontacthelpsyouregulatemanageandcontroltheconversation.WitheyemovementsyoucaninformtheotherpersonthatsheorheshouldspeakAclearexampleofthisoccursinthecollegeclassroomwheretheinstructorasksaquestionandthenlockseyeswithastudent.Thistypeofeyecontacttellsthestudenttoanswerthequestion.Tosignalthenatureoftherelationship.Eyecommunicationalsocanserveasatiesigntosignalthenatureoftherelationshipbetweentwopeople-forexampletoindicatepositiveornegativeregard.Dependingonthecultureeyecontactmaycommunicateyourromanticinterestinanotherpersonoreyeavoidancemayindicaterespect.来规范谈话目光接触有助于您规范管理,并控制对话通过眼球运动,你可以告诉对方他或她应该说话大学教室里就有一个明显的例子,教师提出一个问题,然后锁定一个学生的眼睛这种眼神接触告诉学生回答这个问题表明这种关系的性质眼睛沟通也可以作为一个“领带标志”来表明两个人之间的关系的性质-例如,表示正面或负面的关注根据不同的文化,目光接触可能会传达你对另一个人的浪漫兴趣,或眼神的避免可能表示尊重Tosignalstatus.Eyecontactisoftenusedtosignalstatusandaggression.Amongyoungerpeopleprolongedeyecontactfromastrangeristakentosignifyaggressivenessandfrequentlypromptsphysicalviolence-merelybecauseonepersonlookedperhapslittlelongerthanwasconsiderednormalinthatspecificculture.表示状态目光接触往往用来表示状态和攻击在年轻人中,长时间的陌生人眼神交流被认为是攻击性的,常常会引起身体上的暴力-仅仅是因为一个人看起来可能比那个特定文化中被认为是正常的时间稍长TocompensateforPhysicaldistance.Eyecontactisoftenusedtocompensateforincreasedphysicaldistance.BymakingeyecontactyouovercomepsychologicallythephysicaldistancebetweenyourselfandanotherPerson.Whenyoucatchsomeone’seyeatapartyforexampleyoubecomepsychologicallycloseeventhoughyoumaybeseparatedbyaconsiderablephysicaldistance.为了补偿身体的距离眼睛接触通常用于补偿增加的物理距离通过目光接触,你在心理上克服了你和另一个人之间的身体距离例如,当你在派对上吸引别人的注意力时,即使你可能被相隔很远的物理距离,你也会在心理上接近TheeyesobservedsociologistErvingGoffmaninInteractionRitual1967are“greatintruders.”Whenyouavoideyecontactoravertyourglanceyouallowotherstomaintaintheirprivacy:Youprobablydothiswhenyouseeacouplearguinginthestreetoronabus.Youturnyoureyesawayasiftosay.Idontmeantointrude;Irespectyourprivacy:Goffmanreferstothisbehaviorascivilinattention.社会学家欧文·戈夫曼(ErvingGoffman)在互动仪式
(1967)说眼睛是“伟大的入侵者”当你避免目光接触或避免你的目光时,你允许别人保持他们的隐私当你看到一对夫妇在街上争吵时,或在公共汽车上你转过头来,好像在说“我不打算干涉,我尊重你的隐私戈夫曼把这种行为称为公民不注意Eyeavoidancealsocansignalalackofinterestinapersonaconversationorsomevisualstimulus.Attimesliketheostrichyouhideyoureyesinanattempttocutoffunpleasantstimuli.Noticeforexamplehowquicklypeopleclosetheireyesinthefaceofsomeextremeunpleasantness.Interestinglyenougheveniftheunpleasantnessisauditoryyoutendtoshutitoutbyclosingyoureyes.Sometimesyoucloseyoureyestoblockoutvisualstimuliandthustoheightenyourothersenses;forexampleweoftenlistentomusicwithoureyesclosed.Loversoftenclosetheireyeswhilekissingandmanyprefertomakeloveinadarkordimlylitroom.避免眼睛也可以表示对一个人,一段谈话或一些视觉刺激缺乏兴趣有时候,就像鸵鸟一样,你会隐藏你的眼睛,企图切断不愉快的刺激例如,注意面对一些极度不愉快的情况,人们闭上眼睛的速度有多快有趣的是,即使不愉快是听觉的,你也往往闭上眼睛关闭它有时你闭上眼睛阻挡视觉刺激,从而提高你的其他感官;例如,我们经常闭着眼睛听音乐恋人在亲吻的时候经常闭上眼睛,许多人喜欢在黑暗或昏暗的房间里做爱Pupildilation瞳孔扩张InthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesinItalywomenusedtoputdropsofbelladonnawhichliterallymeansbeautifulwomanintotheireyestoenlargetheirpupilssothattheywouldlookmoreattractive.Researchinthefieldofpupillometricssupportstheintuitivelogicofthesewomen:Dilatedpupilsareinfactjudgedtobemoreattractivethanconstrictedones.在意大利的十五世纪和十六世纪,妇女往往把颠茄(从字面上来说意为“美丽的女人”)的眼睛,放大他们的瞳孔,使他们看起来更有吸引力在瞳孔测量学领域的研究支持这些女性的直觉逻辑扩大的学生实际上被认为比收缩的学生更具有吸引力Inonestudyphotographsofwomenwereretouched.Inonesetofphotographsthepupilswereenlargedandinanothertheyweremadesmaller.Menwerethenaskedtojudgethewomen’spersonalitiesfromthephotographs.Thephotosofwomenwithsmallpupilsdrewresponsessuchascoldhardandselfish;thosewithdilatedpupilsdrewresponsessuchasfeminineandsoft.Howeverthemaleobserverscouldnotverbalizethereasonsforthedifferentperceptions.Bothpupildilationitselfandpeople’sreactionstochangesinthepupilsizeofothersseemtofunctionbelowthelevelofconsciousawareness.在一项研究中,女性的照片被修饰在一组照片中,瞳孔扩大了,另一组缩小了然后要求男性从照片中判断女性的个性小学生女生的照片反应冷,硬,自私;那些散瞳的学生画了女性柔和的反应然而,男性观察者不能用语言来表达不同认知的原因瞳孔扩张本身和人们对其他人的瞳孔大小变化的反应似乎都低于自觉意识的水平PupilsizeisalsoindicativeofyourinterestandlevelofemotionalarousalYourpupilsenlargewhenyouareinterestedinsomethingorwhenyouemotionallyaroused.Perhapswefinddilatedpupilsmoreattractivebecausewejudgethemasindicativeofaninterestinus.瞳孔大小也代表了你的兴趣和情绪唤起的水平当你对某事感兴趣或者当你情绪激动时,你的瞳孔扩大也许我们发现扩大的瞳孔更有吸引力,因为我们把他们判断为对我们有兴趣Althoughbelladonnaisnolongerusedthecosmeticsindustryhasmademillionssellingeyeenhancerssuchaseyeshadoweyelinerfalseeyelashesandtintedcontactlensesthatchangeeyecolor.Theseitemsfunctionideallyatleasttodrawattentiontothesepowerfulcommunicators.尽管颠茄不再使用,但化妆品行业已经制造了数以百万计的销售眼部促进剂,如眼影,眼线,假睫毛和改变眼睛颜色的有色隐形眼镜这些项目的功能(理想情况下,至少)吸引这些强大的传播者注意Reading1THEMEANINGSOFTOUCHTactilecommunicationorcommunicationbytouchalsoreferredtoashapticsisperhapsthemostprimitiveformofcommunication.DevelopmentallytouchisProbablythefirstsensetobeused;eveninthewombthechildisstimulatedbytouch.Soonafterbirth.thechildiscaressedpattedandstroked.Inturnthechildexploresitsworldthroughtouch.Inaveryshorttimethechildlearnstocommunicateawidevarietyofmeaningsthroughtouch.Notsurprisinglytouchalsovarieswithyourrelationshipstage.Intheearlystagesofarelationshipyoutouchlittle;inintermediatestagesinvolvementandintimacyyoutouchagreatdeal;andatstableordeterioratingstagesyouagaintouchlittle.Touchmaycommunicatefivemajormeanings.触觉通信或触摸通信也被称为触觉,也许是最原始的通信形式在发展方面,触摸可能是第一个被使用的感觉;即使在子宫里,孩子也会被触摸刺激出生后不久孩子被抚摸,拍打着,抚摸着反过来,孩子通过触摸来探索它的世界在很短的时间内,孩子学会通过触摸来传达各种各样的意思毫不奇怪,触摸也随着你的关系阶段而变化在一段关系的早期阶段,你几乎没有触及;在中间阶段(参与和亲密),你触摸很大,在稳定或恶化的阶段,你再次触摸一点触摸可以传达五个主要含义PositiveemotionsTouchmaycommunicatepositiveemotionsmainlybetweenintimatesorotherwhohavearelativelycloserelationship.Amongthemostimportantofthesepositiveemotionsaresupportappreciationinclusionsexualinterestorintentandaffection.触摸可能主要是在亲密关系或其他相对亲密的人之间传递正面情绪这些积极情绪中最重要的是支持,欣赏,包容,性兴趣或意向和情感PlayfulnessTouchoftencommunicatesourintentiontoplayeitheraffectionatelyoraggressively.Whentouchisusedinthismannertheplayfulnessde-emphasizestheemotionandtellstheotherpersonthatitisnotobetakenseriously.Playfultouchesservetolightenaninteraction.触摸往往传达我们的意图亲热地或积极地以这种方式使用触摸时,嬉戏性会降低情绪,告诉对方这是不重视的俏皮的接触会减轻互动ControlTouchalsomaycontrolthebehaviorsattitudesorfeelingsoftheotherperson.Suchcontrolmaycommunicatevariousmessageas.Toaskforcomplianceforexamplewetouchtheotherpersontocommunicate“Moveover”“Hurry”“stayhere”and“Doit.”Touchingtocontrolmayalsocommunicatestatusanddominance.Thehigher-statusanddominantpersonforexampleinitiatestouch.Infactitwouldbeabreachofetiquetteforthelower-statuspersontotouchthepersonofhigherstatus.触摸也可以控制对方的行为,态度或感受这种控制可以传达各种消息为了要求遵守,例如,我们触摸另一个人沟通“移动”,“快点”,“留在这里”和“这样做”触摸控制也可以传达地位和主导地位举例来说,地位较高的人和主导人触发事实上,地位较低的人触及较高地位的人是违反礼仪的RitualRitualistictouchingcentersongreetingsanddepartures.Shakinghandstosay“hello”or“good-bye”isperhapstheclearestexampleofritualistictouchingbutwemightalsobugkissorputourarmaroundanother’sshoulder.仪式的接触集中在问候和离开握手说“你好”或“再见”也许是仪式性触摸的最明显的例子,但我们也可能会错误,亲吻,或把我们的胳膊放在另一个肩上task-relatednesstask-relatedtouchingisassociatedwiththeperformanceoffunctionsuchasremovingaspeckofdustfromanotherperson’sfacehelpingsomeoneoutofacarorcheckingsomeone’sforeheadforafever.task-relatedtouchingseemsgenerallytoberegardedpositively.Instudiesonthesubjectforexamplebookborrowershadamorepositivesattitudetowardthelibraryandlibrarianwhentouchedlightlyandcustomersgavelargertipswhenlightlytouchedbythewaitress.Similarlydinerswhoweretouchedontheshoulderorhandwhengiventheirchangeinarestauranttippedmorethandinerswhowerenottouched.与任务有关的触摸与功能的执行相关联,例如从另一个人的脸上除去一点灰尘,帮助某人出车,或检查某人的额头发烧与任务有关的感动似乎一般被认为是积极的在这方面的研究中,例如借书人轻轻一碰,对图书馆和图书管理员的态度就会比较积极,顾客在服务员轻轻一点的时候就会给出较大的提示同样,在餐厅换衣服的时候,用餐者的肩膀或手上的食物比没有碰到的用餐者多Asyoucanimaginetouchingalsocangetyouintotrouble.Forexampletouchingthatistoopositiveortoointimatetooearlyinarelationshipmaysendthewrongsignals.Similarlyplayingtooroughlyorholdingsomeone’sarmtocontroltheirmovementsmayberesented.Usingritualistictouchingincorrectlyorinwaysthatmaybeculturallyinsensitivemaylikewisegetyouintodifficulty.你可以想象,触摸也可以让你陷入困境例如,在关系中过早地接触太正面(或太贴切)可能会发出错误的信号同样,玩得太粗暴或握住某人的手臂来控制他们的动作可能会受到憎恶使用不正确的仪式或以文化不敏感的方式接触也可能使你陷入困境TouchavoidanceAsmuchaswehaveaneedanddesiretotouchandtobetouchedbyotherswealsohaveatendencytoavoidtouchfromcertainpeopleorincertaincircumstances.Amongtheimportantfindingsisthattouchavoidanceispositivelyrelatedtocommunicationapprehensionorfearoranxietyaboutcommunicating:Peoplewhofearoralcommunicationalsoscorehighontouchavoidance.Touchavoidancealsoishighamongthosewhoself-discloselittle:touchandself-disclosureareintimateformsofcommunicationandpeoplewhoarereluctanttogetclosetoanotherpersonbyself-disclosurealsoseemreluctanttogetclosethroughtouch.尽管我们有需要和欲望去接触他人,我们也倾向于避免某些人或某些情况下的接触其中重要的发现是避免接触与沟通的忧虑,或对沟通的恐惧或焦虑有正相关害怕口语交际的人在避免接触方面也得分高在自我表露的人之中,触觉回避也是很高的触摸和自我表露是交流的亲密形式,而不愿意靠自我表露与他人接近的人也似乎不愿意亲密接触Olderpeoplehavehighertouchavoidancescoresforopposite-sexpersonsthandoyoungerpeople.Apparentlyaswegetolderwearetouchedlessbymembersoftheoppositesexandthisdecreasedfrequencyoftouchingmayleadustoavoidtouching.Malesscorehigherthanfemalesonsame-sextouchavoidance.Thisaccordswellwithourstereotypes.Menavoidtouchingothermenbutwomenmayanddotouchotherwomen.nsfoundhavehighertouchanddotouchotherwomen.Womenitisfoundhavetouchavoidancescoresforopposite-sextouchingthandomen.与年轻人相比,老年人对异性恋者的避免接触评分更高显然,随着年龄的增长,我们对异性的接触会减少,这种减少的频率可能会导致我们避免接触避免同性接触的男性得分高于女性这与我们的陈规相符男人不要碰其他男人,但是女人可能会碰触其他女人ns发现,有更高的触摸,并触摸其他女性据发现,与男性相比,女性对于异性恋的接触已经避免了分数SPATIALMESSAGESSpaceisanespeciallyimportantfactorininterpersonalcommunicationalthoughweseldomthinkaboutit.EdwardT.Hallwhopioneeredthestudyofspatialcommunicationcalledthisareaproxemics.Wecanexaminethisbroadareabylookingatproxemicdistances.Fourproxemicdistancescorrespondcloselytothemajortypesofrelationships.Theyareintimatepersonalsocialandpublicdistances.空间是人际交往中一个特别重要的因素,尽管我们很少去思考开拓空间通信研究的爱德华·T·霍尔(EdwardT.Hall)称这一领域为近似我们可以通过查看最近的距离来检查这个广阔的区域四个近似距离对应于主要类型的关系他们是亲密的,个人的,社交的和公众的距离IntimatedistanceInintimatedistancerangingfromtheclosephaseofactualtouchingtothefarphaseof6to18inchesthepresenceoftheotherindividualisunmistakable.EachindividualexperiencesthesoundsmellandfeeloftheothersbreathTheclosephaseisusedforlovemakingandwrestlingforcomfortingandprotectingIntheclosephasethemusclesandtheskincommunicatewhileactualwordsplayaminorrole.Thefarphaseallowspeopletotoucheachotherbyextendingtheirhands.Theindividualsaresoclosethatthisdistanceisnotconsideredproperforstrangersinpublic.BecauseofthefeelingofinappropriatenessanddiscomfortatleastforsomeAmericanstheeyesseldommeetbutremainfixedonsomeremoteobject.在亲密的距离,从实际的接触阶段到6到18英寸的相位,其他人的存在是明显的每个人都体验对方气息的声音,气味和感觉关闭阶段用于做爱和摔跤,用于安慰和保护在关闭阶段,肌肉和皮肤交流,而实际的话语起到次要作用遥远的阶段允许人们伸出双手互相碰触个人如此密切,以至于这个距离在公共场合对于陌生人来说并不合适由于不适当和不适的感觉(至少对于一些美国人),眼睛很少见面,而是固定在一些遥远的物体上PersonaldistanceWecarryaprotectivebubbledefiningourpersonaldistancewhichallowsustostayprotectedanduntouchedbyothers.Personaldistancerangesfrom18inchestoabout4feet.Intheclosephasepeoplecanstillholdorgraspeachotherbutonlybyextendingtheirarms.Wecanthentakeintoourprotectivebubblecertainindividuals-forexamplelovedones.InthefarphaseyoucantouchanotherpersononlyifyoubothextendyourarmsThisfarphaseistheextenttowhichyoucanphysicallygetyourhandsonthings;henceitdefinesinonesensethelimitsofyourphysicalcontroloverothers.Attimeswemaydetectbreathodorbutgenerallyatthisdistanceetiquettedemandsthatwedirectourbreathtosomeneutralcornersoasnottooffend.我们有一个保护性的泡沫来定义我们的个人距离,这使我们能够保持和不受其他人的影响个人距离范围从18英寸到大约4英尺在紧密的阶段,人们仍然可以相互握住或抓住对方,只能伸出双臂然后,我们可以将我们的保护泡沫带入某些人,例如亲人在遥远的阶段,只有当你们伸出双臂时,你才能碰到另一个人这个阶段是你可以亲手操作的地方;因此,它在某种意义上定义了你对别人的物质控制的限制有时,我们可能会检测到呼吸气味,但通常在这个距离礼仪要求,我们呼吸到一个中立的角落,以免冒犯SocialdistanceAtthesocialdistancerangingfrom4to12feet.youlosethevisualpeopledetailyouhadinthepersonaldistance.Theclosephaseisthedistanceatwhichyouconductimpersonalbusinessorinteractatasocialgathering.ThefarphaseisthedistanceatwhichyoustandwhensomeonesaysStandawaysoIcanlookatyouAtthisdistancebusinesstransactionshaveamoreformaltonethanwhenconductedintheclosephase.Inofficesofhigh-rankingofficialsthedeskandthevisitorschairareoftenpositionedsothatclientarekeptatleastthisdistanceaway.Unliketheintimatedistancewhereeyecontactisawkwardthefarphaseofthesocialdistancemakeseyecontactessential-otherwisecommunicationislost.Thevoiceisgenerallylouderthannormalatthislevel.Thedistanceenablesyoutoavoidconstantinteractionwiththosewithwhomyouworkwithoutseemingrude.在社交距离,从4到12英尺不等你在个人距离上失去了视觉上的细节关闭阶段是您进行非个人业务或在社交聚会中进行交互的距离远期是指某人说“站起来,我可以看着你”的距离,在这个距离上,商业交易比在紧密阶段进行时更为正式在高级官员的办公室里,办公桌和访客座椅通常是这样定位的,以便客户至少保持这个距离与亲密距离不同的是,目光接触是尴尬的,社交距离的远距离使得眼睛接触至关重要,否则,交流就失去了这个级别的声音通常比正常的声音大距离可以让你避免与你工作的人不断的互动,而不会显得粗鲁PublicdistancePublicdistancerangesfrom12tonomorethan25feetIntheclosephaseapersonseemsprotectedbyspace.Atthisdistanceyoureabletotakedefensiveactionshouldyoufeelthreatened.Onapublicbusortrainforexampleyoumightkeepatleastthisdistancefromadrunk.Althoughyoulosethefinedetailsofthefaceandeyesyourestillclosesoenoughtoseewhatishappening.Atthefarphaseyouseeothersnotasseparateindividualsbutaspartofthewholesetting.Peopleautomaticallyestablishaspaceofapproximately30feetaroundimportantpublicfiguresandtheyseemtodothiswhetherornotthereareguardspreventingtheircomingscloser.Thisfarphaseisthedistancebywhichactorsonstageareseparatedfromtheiraudience;consequentlytheiractionsandvoiceshavetobesomewhatexaggerated.公共距离从12到不超过25英尺在关闭阶段,一个人似乎受到空间的保护在这个距离,你可以采取防御行动,如果你感到受到威胁例如,在公共汽车或火车上,您可能至少与醉酒者保持这样的距离尽管你失去了面部和眼睛的细节,但你仍然可以看到发生的事情在远期阶段,你会看到别人不是独立的个体,而是整个环境的一部分人们自动在重要的公众人物周围建立了大约30英尺的空间,他们似乎是这样做的,不管有没有防卫措施阻止他们靠近这个阶段是舞台上的演员与观众分开的距离因此他们的行为和声音必须有所夸大Thespecificdistancethatyoullmaintainbetweenyourselfandanygivenpersondependsonawidevarietyoffactors.Amongthemostsignificantaregenderwomensitandstandclosertoeachotherthandomeninsame-sexdyadsandpeopleapproachwomenmorecloselythantheyapproachmenagepeoplemaintaincloserdistanceswithsimilarlyagedothersthantheydowiththosemucholderormuchyoungerandpersonalityintrovertsandhighlyanxiouspeoplemaintaingreaterdistancesthandoextroverts.Notsurprisinglythanwithmaintainshorterdistanceswithpeopleyourefamiliarwiththanwithstrangersandwithpeopleyoulikethanwiththoseyoudon’tlike.您在自己和任何特定人员之间保持的具体距离取决于多种因素其中最重要的是性别(女性坐在一起比男性更接近彼此,人与人之间的关系比男性更接近女性),年龄(与其他年龄相似的人保持更近的距离)那些年纪大得多或年轻得多的人)和性格(内向者和高度焦虑的人比外向者保持更远的距离)毫不奇怪的是,与陌生人相比,你与陌生人保持较短的距离,与你喜欢的人保持较短的距离,而不是与你不喜欢的人相比Reading3NONVERBALCOMMUNICATIONANDCULTUREThroughoutthisunitwe’veseenafewculturalandgenderdifferencesinnonverbalcommunication.Culturalvariationsincertainchannelsofcommunication.howeverhavebecomethefocusofsustainedresearch.Hereweconsiderjustasamplingoftherelationshipsbetweencultureandnonverbalcommunicationexpressedthroughgesturesfacialexpressionseyecommunicationandtouch.在整个单位中,我们看到了非语言交际中的一些文化和性别差异某些沟通渠道的文化差异然而,已成为持续研究的重点在这里,我们只考虑通过手势,面部表情,眼睛交流和触觉表达的文化和非言语交流之间的关系CultureandgestureThereismuchvariationingesturesandtheirmeaningsamongdifferentcultures.Considerafewcommongesturessuchastheonesbelowthatyoumayuseoftenwithoutthinkingbutthatcouldeasilynogetyouintotroubleifyouusedtheminanotherculture.不同文化之间的手势和意义有很大的差异考虑一些常见的手势,比如下面的手势,你可能经常不用思考,但是如果你在另一种文化中使用它们,很容易不会让你陷入麻烦FoldingyourarmsoveryourchestwouldbeconsidereddefiantanddisrespectfulinFiji.WavingyourhandwouldberudeinNigeriaandGreece.GesturingwithyourthumbwouldberudeinAustralia.TappingyourtwoindexfingerstogetherwouldbeconsideredaninvitationtosleeptogetherinEgypt.PointingwithyourindexfingerwouldbeimpoliteinmanyMiddleEasterncountries.BowingtoalesserdegreethanyourhostwouldbeconsideredastatementofyoursuperiorityinJapan.InsertingyourthumbbetweenyourindexandmiddlefingerinaclenchedfistwouldbeviewedasawishthatevilwouldbefallapersoninsomeAfricancountries.RestingyourfeetonatableorachairwouldbeinsultinganddisrespectfulinsomeMiddleEasterncountries.在斐济将双臂折叠在胸前将被认为是无礼和不敬的在奈及利亚和希腊挥舞你的手将是无礼的用拇指打手势在澳大利亚是无礼的将你的两根食指放在一起将被认为是在埃及一起睡觉的邀请指着你的食指在许多中东国家是不礼貌的鞠躬比你的东道国稍低的程度将被视为你在日本的优越性的声明将你的拇指插在你的食指和中指之间握紧拳头,将会被视为一个非洲国家人们希望邪恶降临的愿望在一些中东国家,把脚放在桌子或椅子上会是侮辱和不尊重的CultureandfacialexpressionThewidevariationsinfacialcommunicationthatweobserveindifferentculturesseemstoreflectwhichreactionsarepubliclypermissibleratherthanafundamentaldifferenceinthewayemotionsarefaciallyexpressed.Forexampleitisconsidered“forward”orinappropriateforJapanesewomentorevealbroadsmiles;thereforemanyJapanesewomenwillhidetheirsmilessometimeswiththeirhands.WomenintheUnitedStatesontheotherhandhavenosuchrestrictionsandsoaremorelikelytosmileopenly.Thusthedifferencemaynotbeinthewaydifferentculturesexpressemotionsbutratherinthesocietiesdisplayrulesorrulesabouttheappropriatedisplayofemotionsinpublic.Thewell-documentedfindingthatwomensmilemorethanmenforexampleislikelydueinparttodisplayrulesthatallowwomentosmilemorethanmen.我们观察到不同文化的面部交流的广泛变化似乎反映了哪些反应是公开允许的,而不是表达情绪的方式的根本差异例如,对于日本女性来说,它被认为是“向前”或不适当的,表现出宽广的笑容;因此,许多日本女性会隐藏自己的笑容,有时甚至会用手另一方面,美国的女性没有这种限制,所以更可能公开地微笑因此,这种差异可能不在于不同文化表达情感的方式,而在于社会表达规则或关于在公共场合适当表现情绪的规则例如,记录充分的文件显示,女性比男性笑得更多,部分原因可能是由于规则允许女性比男性笑得更多CultureandeyecommunicationNotsurprisinglyeyemessagesvarywithbothcultureandgender.aoForexampleAmericansconsiderdirecteyecontactanexpressionofhonestyandforthrightnessbuttheJapaneseoftenviewthisasshowingalackofrespect.AJapanesepersonwillglanceattheotherpersonsfacerarelyandthenonlyforveryshortperiods.Thereforeinterpretinganother’seyecontactmessagesaccordingtoone’sownculturalrulesisariskyundertakingeyemovementsthatyoumayinterpretasinsultingmayhavebeenintendedtoshowrespect.毫不奇怪,眼睛的信息会随着文化和性别的不同而变化例如,美国人认为直接的目光接触是一种诚实和坦率的表达,但日本人往往认为这表现为缺乏尊重一个日本人很少会看对方的脸,然后很短的时间因此,根据自己的文化规则来解释他人的目光接触信息是一项冒险的事情,你可能会认为这种侮辱的眼动可能是为了表示尊重Womenmakeeyecontactmoreandmaintainitlongerbothinspeakingandinlisteningthanmen.Thisholdstruewhetherwomenareinteractingwithotherwomenorwithmen.Thisdifferenceineyebehaviormayresultfromwomen’sgreattendencytodisplayemotions.Whenwomeninteractwithotherwomentheydisplayaffiliativeandsupportiveeyecontactwhereaswhenmeninteractwithothermentheyaverttheirgazes.女性更多的目光接触,并保持更长的时间(在说话和听力)比男性无论女性是与其他女性还是男性互动,都是如此这种眼睛行为上的差异可能是由于女性表现情绪的高度倾向造成的当女性与其他女性互动时,她们表现出亲切和支持性的眼神接触,而当男性与其他男性互动时,他们避免了注视CulturaldifferencesalsoexistinthewaysPeopledecodethemeaningoffacialexpressions.ForexampleAmericanandJapanesestudentsjudgedthemeaningofasmilingandaneutralfacialexpression.TheAmericansratedthesmilingfaceasmoreattractivemoreintelligentandmoresociablethantheneutralface.IncontrasttheJapaneseratedthesmilingfaceasmoresociablebutnotassoattractive-andtheyratedtheneutralfaceasmoreintelligent.文化差异也存在于人们解读面部表情的意义上例如,美国和日本学生判断微笑和中性面部表情的含义美国人认为笑脸比中性脸更具吸引力,更聪明,更有社交性相比之下,日本人则认为笑脸更具社交性,但却不那么有吸引力-而且他们认为中性面孔更聪明CultureandtouchTheseveralfunctionsandexamplesoftouchingdiscussedearlierinthischapterwerebasedonstudiesinNorthAmerica;inotherculturesthesefunctionsarenotservedinthesameway.Insomeculturesforexamplesometask-relatedtouchingisviewednegativelyandistobeavoided.AmongKoreansitisconsidereddisrespectfulforastoreownertotouchacustomerwhensayhandingbackchangeitisconsideredtoointimateagesture.AmemberofanotherculturehoweverwhoisusedtotouchingmayconsidertheKoreansbehaviorcoldandaloof.Muslimchildrenaresocializednottotouchchildrenoftheoppositesex;consequentlytheirbehaviorcaneasilybeinterpretedasunfriendlybyAmericanchildrenwhoareusedtouchingoneanother.本章前面讨论的几个触及的功能和例子是基于北美的研究;在其他文化中,这些功能不是以相同的方式服务的例如在某些文化中,某些与任务相关的动作被认为是消极的,应该避免在韩国人当中,当店主接触顾客时,被认为不尊重顾客,这被认为是太贴心然而,习惯于接触的另一种文化的成员可能会认为韩国人的行为冷淡超然穆斯林儿童社交不要接触异性的孩子;因此,他们的行为很容易被美国的儿童相互接触而被解释为不友好的Somecultures-includingmanyinsouthernEuropeandtheMiddleEast-arecontactcultures;othersarenoncontactculturessuchasthoseofnorthernEuropeandJapan.Membersofcontactmaintainclosedistancestouchoneanotherinconversationfaceeachothermoredirectlyandmaintainlongerandmorefocusedcontact.Membersofnoncontactculturesmaintaingreaterdistancesintheirinteractionstoucheachotherrarelyifatallavoidfacingeachotherdirectlyandmaintainmuchlessdirecteyecontact.Asaresultofthesedifferencesproblemsmayoccur.ForexamplenorthernEuropeansandJapanesemaybeperceivedascolddistantanduninvolvedbysouthernEuropeans-whomayinturnbeperceivedaspushyaggressiveandinappropriatelyintimate一些文化-包括南欧和中东的许多文化-接触文化;另一些是非接触的文化,如北欧和日本的文化联络员保持近距离,交谈互相接触,直接面对面,保持更长时间和更有针对性的联系非接触文化的成员在他们的相互作用中保持更远的距离,很少接触彼此(如果有的话),避免直接面对对方,并保持较少的直接目光接触由于这些差异,可能会出现问题例如,北欧人和日本人可能被认为是冷漠的,遥远的,并且不受南欧人的影响,而南欧人又可能被认为是有力的,侵略性的和不适当的亲密关系。