还剩5页未读,继续阅读
文本内容:
电大外国文学试题及答案参考资料小抄
一、单项选择题1.在希腊神话中,爱神与战神私通,被爱神的丈夫用一张大网捉住,众神哄堂大笑在古希腊人看来,这些都是A.理性不能克制情欲的表现B.缺乏道德意识的表现C.婚姻状态尚不稳定的表现D.神和人一样有七情六欲的表现[D]2.在《埃涅阿斯纪》中,维吉尔把罗马人的祖先、特洛伊王子埃涅阿斯写成是神的后裔,其最主要目的是A.为了忠实于史实B.为了忠实于神话传说C.为了渲染史诗的浪漫气氛D.为屋大维的统治寻找依据,歌颂罗马统治者[D]3.《罗兰之歌》通过对罗兰奋勇拼杀、战死疆场的描写所要表达的主题是A.悲观主义B.爱国主义C.自由主义D.人文主义[B]4.列那狐同比自己强大的狮子、狼和熊进行周旋和斗争,目的是A.保护比自己弱小的鸡、麻雀和小兔等B.代表弱小的鸡、麻雀和小兔同强权进行斗争C.展现其叛逆性格D.纯粹是为了自身的利益,但客观上也有利于小动物[D]5.但丁创作《神曲》时使用的语言是A.拉丁语B.希腊语C.意大利语D.希伯来语[C]6.文艺复兴时期的名著《十日谈》的核心思想是A.反对个人主义B.宣扬“幸福在人间”C.倡导英雄主义D.宣扬封建迷信[B]7.莎士比亚早期创作的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是A.一出阴沉的喜剧B.一出乐观的喜剧C.一出乐观的悲剧D.一出阴沉的悲剧[C]8.拉辛的悲剧《安德洛玛刻》中的同名女主人公由于理性和感情的高度统一,结果是A.丧失了儿子的生命,保住了自己的贞节B.丧失了儿子的生命,丧失了自己的贞节C.保全了儿子的生命,保住了自己的贞节D.保全了儿子的生命,丧失了自己的贞节[C]9,笛福的《鲁滨逊飘流记》的主人公是A.西班牙流浪汉典型B.具有才能却自甘堕落的时代畸形儿典型C.资本原始积累时期英国商业资产者的典型D.堂·吉诃德式的典型[C]10.恩格斯称狄德罗的哲理小说《拉摩的侄儿》是A.“辩证法的杰作”B.“无与伦比的作品”C.“心灵的辩证法”的杰作D.“唯物辩证法”的作品[A]11.雨果的《九三年》中革命军司令郭文私自放走了叛军首领朗德纳克,其原因是A.朗德纳克是他的叔祖父B.朗德纳克因救小孩而被捕,共和国不应该处他死刑C.政委西穆尔登是他的老师,不会追究他的责任D.同情叛军,对共和国不满[B]12.霍桑的《红字》看似一部描写爱情的小说,实际上表现的是A.美国的南北战争B.印地安人同白人的斗争C.宗教对人性的摧残D.金钱对人性的毁灭[C]13.斯丹达尔的文艺论著《拉辛与莎土比亚》被认为是A.浪漫主义的宣言书B.批判现实主义文学的第一部理论著作C.古典主义的文艺法典D.启蒙主义理论著作[B]14.托尔斯泰的长篇小说《复活》中的女主人公玛丝洛娃是A.上流社会妇女B.被侮辱与被损害的下层妇女C.追求个性解放的贵族妇女D.无可救药的下贱女人[B]
15.陀思妥耶夫斯基在《穷人》中塑造的马卡尔·杰武什金是A.被侮辱与被损害的小人物B.正面的优秀人物C.平民知识分子“新人”形象D.革命民主主义者[A]
16.高尔基的被称作是那一时代“俄罗斯精神生活的编年史”的小说是A.《克里姆·萨姆金的一生》B.《马特维·柯热米亚金的一生》C.《阿尔达莫诺夫家的事业》D.《奥古洛夫镇》[]17.《静静的顿河》所描写的顿河地区那些走向新生活的人们是A.乌克兰人B.哈萨克人C.哥萨克人D.乌兹别克人[]18.30年代初,罗曼·罗兰发表的用以进行自我批评和忏悔反省的著名论文是A.《超乎混战之上》B.《欣悦的灵魂》C.《向过去告别》D.《理智的胜利》[]19.《恶心》又译《厌恶》或《作呕》是萨特的成名作,其体裁是A.境遇剧B.日记体、自叙体小说C.荒诞剧D.哲学随笔[]20.《戈丹》是印度现代著名作家普列姆昌德的名作,主人公何利一生最大的愿望是A.拥有一头奶牛B.想要一个儿子C.还清高利贷D.赎回被变相出卖的女儿[]21.《宫间街》、《思宫街》、《甘露街》三部曲是马哈福兹的代表作它主要描写的是A.一个封建贵族家庭几代人的觉醒反抗B.一个中产阶级家庭三代人对理想的追求C.一个工人阶级家庭三代人与资本家的斗争D.一个贫苦农民家庭几代人受剥削压迫的血泪史[]22.中古波斯著名诗人萨迪在自己重要的作品《蔷薇园》中,主要表现的是A.神秘主义思想B.封建主义思想C.悲观主义思想D.人道主义思想[]23.夏目漱石代表作《我是猫》对当时的社会现实进行了广泛的揭露和批判其采用的最主要方法是A.以古代文学的题材表达作者现代的思想B.以沉重的笔调表现悲观主义思想C.以猫为叙述者,见人之所未见,言人之所不能言D.以作家独特的方言进行一语双关式的叙述[]24.川端康成的著名小说《雪国》描写了社会下层人物驹子的悲惨境遇小说选取的主要角度是A.从日常生活表现和对待命运态度两方面进行描绘B.从政治生活表现和对待命运态度两方面进行描绘C.从日常生活表现和对待爱情态度两方面进行描绘D.从政治生活表现和对待爱情态度两方面进行描绘[]
二、多项选择题25.在伊阿古看来,他之所以要陷害奥赛罗、苔丝德蒙娜和凯西奥,原因有A.他认为奥赛罗不公正,本应提拔他伊阿古当副官,但却提拔了凯西奥当副官B.他认为凯西奥在奥赛罗和苔丝德蒙娜的恋爱过程中帮过忙讨好过他们C.他认为他自己应该得到苔丝德蒙娜D.他认为凯西奥与苔丝德蒙娜确实有暧昧关系E.他认为这些人既憨且直,最容易上当受骗[ABE]26.17世纪欧洲文学的主要成就有英国资产阶级革命文学和法国古典主义文学,此外还有A.巴洛克文学B.市民世俗文学C.耶拿派诗歌D.海德堡浪漫派E.感伤主义文学[AB]27.博马舍的《费加罗的婚姻》描写的主要内容有A.阿勒玛维华伯爵和伯爵夫人的婚姻B.伯爵仆人费加罗和伯爵夫人使女苏珊娜的婚姻C.伯爵施展手段追求苏珊娜,企图恢复对农奴新娘的“初夜权”D.费加罗对伯爵百依百顺,委屈求全E.费加罗凭智慧和机巧挫败了伯爵的罪恶企图[BCE]28.普希金的政治抒情诗有A.《自由颂》B.《乡村》C.《致大海》D.《致西伯利亚》E.《皇村的回忆》[ABCD]29.《老人与海》中具有象征意义的物象有A.鲸鱼B.大海C.马林鱼D.鲨鱼E.狮子[BCDE]30.卡夫卡所创造的艺术世界,人们称为“卡夫卡式”这种“卡夫卡式”小说的艺术特色具体表现有A.荒诞框架下的细节真实B.一定的自传色彩C.结构完整D.怪诞E.象征[]31.加西亚·马尔克斯的《百年孤独》是魔幻现实主义的经典作品,其描写的主要内容有A.对拉美民族历史文化的再现B.布恩蒂亚家族7代人充满神奇色彩的生活和经历C.哥伦比亚反动独裁政权的残暴D.美国侵略者对拉美民族的政治压迫和经济掠夺E.拉美人民应该告别愚昧、孤独,走向觉醒与文明[]32.《沙恭达罗》描写豆扇陀向沙恭达罗表达爱情的情节主要有A.借故要留在净修林B.与沙恭达罗以干闼婆方式结合C.恢复记忆后开始思念和寻找沙恭达罗D.在回京前以戒指为信物相赠E.在仙界相认时悔恨交加[]第二部分非选择题
三、名词解释
33.狂飙突进运动
34.荒诞派戏剧
35.俳句
四、简答题
36.简要说明《伪君子》中答尔丢夫这一宗教伪善者的欺骗性与危害性.
37.哈代笔下的苔丝是“一个纯洁的女人”,但却遭到毁灭,试析苔丝悲剧的根源
38.简析黑色幽默代表作家海勒《第二十二条军规》中“第二十二条军规”的深刻内涵
五、论述题
39.堂·吉诃德是个可笑、可爱、可敬又可悲的艺术典型,试论这一形象的矛盾性
40.《戈拉》是泰戈尔歌颂印度青年的爱国精神、批判宗教偏见的著名作品,试论作者在塑造成主人公戈拉时所运用的主要艺术手法
六、分析题
41.欧洲文学史上有一系列吝啬鬼形象试比较老葛朗台和泼留希金这两个吝啬鬼形象的异同.外国文学史试题参考答案课程代码00540
一、单项选择题1.D2.D3.B4.D5.C6.B7.C8.C9.C10.A11.B12.C13.B14.B
15.A16.A17.C18.C19.B20.A21.B22.D23.C24.C
二、多项选择题
25.ABE26.AB27.BCE28.ABCD29.BCDE30.ABDE31.ABCDE32.ABCDE
三、名词解释[参考答案]33.118世纪70至80年代,在德国发生的一场文学运动2要求个性解放,崇尚天才和叛逆,推崇自然和自我3代表作家有席勒和歌德34.1荒诞派戏剧是20世纪50年代兴起于法国,60年代后流行于欧美其他国家的一个反传统戏剧流派2它没有完整连贯的情节,没有戏剧冲突,舞台形象支离破碎,人物语言颠三倒四它表现的世界是荒诞的,人生是痛苦的,人与人的关系是无法沟通的3代表作家有尤奈斯库、贝克特、品特和阿尔比等35.1是日本民族创造的一种形式最短小的诗歌形体2由“
五、
七、五”句式共17个音组成,含蓄、凝炼,追求一种淡雅、静寂和隽秀的意境3代表作家是被尊为“俳圣”的松尾芭蕉
四、简答题36.1答尔丢夫是17世纪宗教伪善者的化身,表里不一,将自己装扮成虔诚的教士实际上却是贪食贪睡贪财贪色的恶棍2恶行败露时,立刻露出狰狞面目,利用法律,串通官府,企图置他人于死地3他的行为向世人昭示了这种伪善者与法律、宗教、官府、宫廷联系密切,是伪善社会的产物,具有极大的欺骗性和危害性37.1个人的悲剧对美好生活的追求使苔丝始终不向环境和命运低头,但她又相信人的一生是由命运安排的2时代的悲剧资本主义大工业侵入宗法制乡村,宗法制农民纷纷破产,道德秩序与生活秩序一样产生了混乱苔丝内心的纯洁与所处环境的冲突形成了悲剧的因素不合理的社会制度毁灭了苔丝38.1“军规”本身就是一种高度抽象和集中,象征着冥冥中统治世界的神秘力量,变化无常,莫测高深;2作为一条军规它是强制性的;它运用了自相矛盾的推理逻辑,在似是而非中包藏着祸心;3它的本质在于它是一个放之四海而皆准的圈套,是一种永远无法摆脱的困境,是现代西方人对世界的一种感受
五、论述题[参考答案]39.堂·吉诃德是个满脑子骑士幻想而又具有人文主义思想特征的可笑而又可敬的矛盾复杂形象1他是个满脑子骑士幻想的不切买际的幻想家的典型理想与现实脱节,主观与客观分离是其主要特征受流行的骑士小说的毒害,他迷上了骑士道,试图恢复过时的骑士道因而,虽然动机良好,但行为却极其荒唐,效果也极坏吃尽了苦头出够了洋相2同时,他还是一个具有人文主义特征的可敬的人物他有渊博的学识,崇高的理想,有为真理和正义而献身的精神他打起仗来勇往直前,无所畏惧且道德高尚,诚实守信他心目中的骑士道实际上也是他的人文主义理想的载体和寄托3当时的西班牙社会没有提供实现其理想的土壤,因而造就了这个可笑而又可敬的矛盾形象4这个形象具有重要意义通过他,既讽刺了不切实际的幻想家,也表达和寄托了人文主义理想,同时.还表达了对当时西班牙社会的苦涩理解40.1人物对话富有论辩性戈拉积极发表自己的见解与别人争论,有助于揭示人物性格和内心思想2人物形象的鲜明对比戈拉与毕诺耶,戈拉与哈伦的对比更深刻地刻画出人物形象3优美的抒情格调在描摹戈拉的言行时,伴随着作者的强烈抒情
六、分析题[参考答案]41.相同点1葛朗台的一切信仰都以金钱利害关系为基础,他搞政治投机,正是为了经济掠夺波留希金具有强烈的积聚财富的欲望,一天到晚为财物的积累和贮存而奔波2贪婪使葛朗台被金钱所奴役,最终在对黄金的渴欲中送命贪婪使波留希金变成了财富的奴隶,成为受物质支配的异化了的人3吝啬使葛朗台丧失人性,他对妻子、女儿、侄子毫无感情可言吝啬使波留希金失去了性别,他过着乞丐一般的生活,和儿女断绝亲情不同点葛朗台是法国19世纪初期一个资产阶级暴发户,他的最大特征是巧取豪夺他的发迹是靠侵占大革命的胜利果实与剥夺人民财富发家致富的,充满了血腥与罪恶波留希金是19世纪俄国农奴制度崩溃时期的地主,他的最大的特征是没落和堕落,他残酷地压榨和剥削农奴,他的没落表现了俄国农奴主阶级的衰亡 请您删除一下内容,O∩_∩O谢谢!!!2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全,电大期末考试必备小抄,电大考试必过小抄Acetylcholineisaneurotransmitterreleasedfromnerveendingsterminalsinboththeperipheralandthecentralnervoussystems.Itissynthesizedwithinthenerveterminalfromcholinetakenupfromthetissuefluidintothenerveendingbyaspecializedtransportmechanism.Theenzymenecessaryforthissynthesisisformedinthenervecellbodyandpassesdowntheaxontoitsendcarriedintheaxoplasmicflowtheslowmovementofintracellularsubstancecytoplasm.Acetylcholineisstoredinthenerveterminalsequesteredinsmallvesiclesawaitingrelease.Whenanerveactionpotentialreachesandinvadesthenerveterminalashowerofacetylcholinevesiclesisreleasedintothejunctionsynapsebetweenthenerveterminalandthe‘effector’cellwhichthenerveactivates.Thismaybeanothernervecelloramuscleorglandcell.Thuselectricalsignalsareconvertedtochemicalsignalsallowingmessagestobepassedbetweennervecellsorbetweennervecellsandnon-nervecells.Thisprocessistermed‘chemicalneurotransmission’andwasfirstdemonstratedfornervestotheheartbytheGermanpharmacologistLoewiin
1921.Chemicaltransmissioninvolvingacetylcholineisknownas‘cholinergic’.Acetylcholineactsasatransmitterbetweenmotornervesandthefibresofskeletalmuscleatallneuromuscularjunctions.Atthistypeofsynapsethenerveterminaliscloselyapposedtothecellmembraneofamusclefibreattheso-calledmotorendplate.Onreleaseacetylcholineactsalmostinstantlytocauseasequenceofchemicalandphysicaleventsstartingwithdepolarizationofthemotorendplatewhichcausecontractionofthemusclefibre.Thisisexactlywhatisrequiredforvoluntarymusclesinwhicharapidresponsetoacommandisrequired.Theactionofacetylcholineisterminatedrapidlyinaround10milliseconds;anenzymecholinesterasebreaksthetransmitterdownintocholineandanacetateion.Thecholineisthenavailableforre-uptakeintothenerveterminal.Thesesameprinciplesapplytocholinergictransmissionatsitesotherthanneuromuscularjunctionsalthoughthestructureofthesynapsesdiffers.Intheautonomicnervoussystemtheseincludenerve-to-nervesynapsesattherelaystationsgangliainboththesympatheticandtheparasympatheticdivisionsandtheendingsofparasympatheticnervefibresonnon-voluntarysmoothmuscletheheartandglandularcells;inresponsetoactivationofthisnervesupplysmoothmusclecontractsnotablyinthegutthefrequencyofheartbeatisslowedandglandssecrete.Acetylcholineisalsoanimportanttransmitteratmanysitesinthebrainatnerve-to-nervesynapses.Tounderstandhowacetylcholinebringsaboutavarietyofeffectsindifferentcellsitisnecessarytounderstandmembranereceptors.Inpost-synapticmembranesthoseofthecellsonwhichthenervefibresterminatetherearemanydifferentsortsofreceptorsandsomearereceptorsforacetylcholine.Theseareproteinmoleculesthatreactspecificallywithacetylcholineinareversiblefashion.Itisthecomplexofreceptorcombinedwithacetylcholinewhichbringsaboutabiophysicalreactionresultingintheresponsefromthereceptivecell.Twomajortypesofacetylcholinereceptorsexistinthemembranesofcells.Thetypeinskeletalmuscleisknownas‘nicotinic’;inglandssmoothmuscleandthehearttheyare‘muscarinic’;andtherearesomeofeachtypeinthebrain.ThesetermsareusedbecausenicotinemimicstheactionofacetylcholineatnicotinicreceptorswhereasmuscarineanalkaloidfromthemushroomAmanitamuscariamimicstheactionofacetylcholineatthemuscarinicreceptors.Acetylcholineistheneurotransmitterproducedbyneuronsreferredtoascholinergicneurons.Intheperipheralnervoussystemacetylcholineplaysaroleinskeletalmusclemovementaswellasintheregulationofsmoothmuscleandcardiacmuscle.Inthecentralnervoussystemacetylcholineisbelievedtobeinvolvedinlearningmemoryandmood.AcetylcholineissynthesizedfromcholineandacetylcoenzymeAthroughtheactionoftheenzymecholineacetyltransferaseandbecomespackagedintomembrane-bound vesicles .Afterthearrivalofanervesignalattheterminationofanaxonthevesiclesfusewiththecellmembranecausingthereleaseofacetylcholineintothe synapticcleft .Forthenervesignaltocontinueacetylcholinemustdiffusetoanothernearbyneuronormusclecellwhereitwillbindandactivatea receptor protein.Therearetwomaintypesofcholinergicreceptorsnicotinicandmuscarinic.Nicotinicreceptorsarelocatedatsynapsesbetweentwoneuronsandatsynapsesbetweenneuronsandskeletalmusclecells.Uponactivationanicotinicreceptoractsasachannelforthemovementofionsintoandoutoftheneurondirectlyresultingin depolarization oftheneuron.Muscarinicreceptorslocatedatthesynapsesofnerveswithsmoothorcardiacmuscletriggerachainofchemicaleventsreferredtoassignaltransduction.Foracholinergicneurontoreceiveanotherimpulseacetylcholinemustbereleasedfromthereceptortowhichithasbound.Thiswillonlyhappeniftheconcentrationofacetylcholineinthesynapticcleftisverylow.Lowsynapticconcentrationsofacetylcholinecanbemaintainedviaahydrolysisreactioncatalyzedbytheenzymeacetylcholinesterase.Thisenzymehydrolyzesacetylcholineintoaceticacidandcholine.Ifacetylcholinesteraseactivityisinhibitedthesynapticconcentrationofacetylcholinewillremainhigherthannormal.Ifthisinhibitionisirreversibleasinthecaseofexposuretomanynervegasesandsomepesticidessweatingbronchialconstrictionconvulsionsparalysisandpossiblydeathcanoccur.Althoughirreversibleinhibitionisdangerousbeneficialeffectsmaybederivedfromtransientreversibleinhibition.DrugsthatinhibitacetylcholinesteraseinareversiblemannerhavebeenshowntoimprovememoryinsomepeoplewithAlzheimersdisease.abstractexpressionismmovementofabstractpaintingthatemergedinNewYorkCityduringthemid-1940sandattainedsingularprominenceinAmericanartinthefollowingdecade;alsocalledactionpaintingandtheNewYorkschool.ItwasthefirstimportantschoolinAmericanpaintingtodeclareitsindependencefromEuropeanstylesandtoinfluencethedevelopmentofartabroad.ArshileGorkyfirstgaveimpetustothemovement.HispaintingsderivedatfirstfromtheartofPicassoMiróandsurrealismbecamemorepersonallyexpressive.JacksonPollocksturbulentyetelegantabstractpaintingswhichwerecreatedbyspatteringpaintonhugecanvasesplacedonthefloorbroughtabstractexpressionismbeforeahostilepublic.WillemdeKooningsfirstone-manshowin1948establishedhimasahighlyinfluentialartist.Hisintenselycomplicatedabstractpaintingsofthe1940swerefollowedbyimagesofWomangrotesqueversionsofbuxomwomanhoodwhichwerevirtuallyunparalleledinthesustainedsavageryoftheirexecution.PainterssuchasPhilipGustonandFranzKlineturnedtotheabstractlateinthe1940sandsoondevelopedstrikinglyoriginalstyles—theformerlyricalandevocativethelatterforcefulandboldlydramatic.OtherimportantartistsinvolvedwiththemovementincludedHansHofmannRobertMotherwellandMarkRothko;amongothermajorabstractexpressionistsweresuchpaintersasClyffordStillTheodorosStamosAdolphGottliebHelenFrankenthalerLeeKrasnerandEstebanVicente.Abstractexpressionismpresentedabroadrangeofstylisticdiversitywithinitslargelythoughnotexclusivelynonrepresentationalframework.ForexampletheexpressiveviolenceandactivityinpaintingsbydeKooningorPollockmarkedtheoppositeendofthepolefromthesimplequiescentimagesofMarkRothko.Basictomostabstractexpressionistpaintingweretheattentionpaidtosurfacequalitiesi.e.qualitiesofbrushstrokeandtexture;theuseofhugecanvases;theadoptionofanapproachtospaceinwhichallpartsofthecanvasplayedanequallyvitalroleinthetotalwork;theharnessingofaccidentsthatoccurredduringtheprocessofpainting;theglorificationoftheactofpaintingitselfasameansofvisualcommunication;andtheattempttotransferpureemotiondirectlyontothecanvas.Themovementhadaninestimableinfluenceonthemanyvarietiesofworkthatfolloweditespeciallyinthewayitsproponentsusedcolorandmaterials.ItsessentialenergytransmittedanenduringexcitementtotheAmericanartscene.Scienceandtechnologyisquiteabroadcategoryanditcoverseverythingfromstudyingthestarsandtheplanetstostudyingmoleculesandviruses.BeginningwiththeGreeksandHipparchuscontinuingthroughPtolemyCopernicusandGalileoandtodaywithourworkontheInternationalSpaceStationmancontinuestolearnmoreandmoreabouttheheavens. Fromherewelookinwardtobiochemistryandbiology.Totrulyunderstandbiochemistryscientistsstudyandseetheunseenby studyingthechemistryofbiologicalprocesses.Thissciencealongwithbiophysicsaimstobringabetterunderstandingofhowbodieswork–fromhowweturnfoodintoenergytohownerveimpulsestransmit. analyticgeometrybranchof geometry inwhichpointsarerepresentedwithrespecttoacoordinatesystemsuchas Cartesiancoordinatesandinwhichtheapproachtogeometricproblemsisprimarilyalgebraic.Itsmostcommonapplicationisintherepresentationofequationsinvolvingtwoorthreevariablesascurvesintwoorthreedimensionsorsurfacesinthreedimensions.Forexamplethelinearequation ax+by+c=0representsastraightlineinthexy-planeandthelinearequation ax+by+cz+d=0representsaplaneinspacewhere abc and dareconstantnumberscoefficients.Inthiswayageometricproblemcanbetranslatedintoanalgebraicproblemandthemethodsofalgebrabroughttobearonitssolution.Converselythesolutionofaprobleminalgebrasuchasfindingtherootsofanequationorsystemofequationscanbeestimatedorsometimesgivenexactlybygeometricmeanse.g.plottingcurvesandsurfacesanddeterminingpointsofintersection. Inplaneanalyticgeometryalineisfrequentlydescribedintermsofitsslopewhichexpressesitsinclinationtothecoordinateaxes;technicallytheslope m ofastraightlineisthetrigonometrictangentoftheangleitmakeswiththe x-axis.Ifthelineisparalleltothe x-axisitsslopeiszero.Twoormorelineswithequalslopesareparalleltooneanother.Ingeneraltheslopeofthelinethroughthepointsx1 y1andx2 y2isgivenby m=y2-y1/x2-x
1.Theconicsectionsaretreatedinanalyticgeometryasthecurvescorrespondingtothegeneralquadraticequation ax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+f=0where ab … f areconstantsand ab and c arenotallzero.Insolidanalyticgeometrytheorientationofastraightlineisgivennotbyoneslopebutbyitsdirectioncosinesλμandνthecosinesoftheanglesthelinemakeswiththe x-y- and z-axesrespectively;thesesatisfytherelationshipλ2+μ2+ν2=
1.Inthesamewaythattheconicsectionsarestudiedintwodimensionsthe17quadricsurfacese.g.theellipsoidparaboloidandellipticparaboloidarestudiedinsolidanalyticgeometryintermsofthegeneralequationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=
0.Themethodsofanalyticgeometryhavebeengeneralizedtofourormoredimensionsandhavebeencombinedwithotherbranchesofgeometry.AnalyticgeometrywasintroducedbyRenéDescartes in1637andwasoffundamentalimportanceinthedevelopmentofthe calculus bySirIsaacNewtonandG.W.Leibnizinthelate17thcent.Morerecentlyithasservedasthebasisforthemoderndevelopmentandexploitationof algebraicgeometry.circleclosedplanecurveconsistingofallpointsatagivendistancefromsomefixedpointcalledthecenter.Acircleisaconicsectioncutbyaplaneperpendiculartotheaxisofthecone.Thetermcircleisalsousedtorefertotheregionenclosedbythecurvemoreproperlycalledacircularregion.Theradiusofacircleisanylinesegmentconnectingthecenterandapointonthecurve;thetermisalsousedforthelengthrofthissegmenti.e.thecommondistanceofallpointsonthecurvefromthecenter.Similarlythecircumferenceofacircleiseitherthecurveitselforitslengthofarc.Alinesegmentwhosetwoendslieonthecircumferenceisachord;achordthroughthecenteristhediameter.Asecantisalineofindefinitelengthintersectingthecircleattwopointsthesegmentofitwithinthecirclebeingachord.Atangenttoacircleisastraightlinetouchingthecircleatonlyonepointthepointofcontactortangencyandisalwaysperpendiculartotheradiusdrawntothispoint.Acircleisinscribedinapolygonifeachsideofthepolygonistangenttothecircle;acircleiscircumscribedaboutapolygonifalltheverticesofthepolygonlieonthecircumference.ThelengthofthecircumferenceCofacircleisequaltoπseepitimestwicetheradiusdistancerorC=2πr.TheareaAboundedbyacircleisgivenbyA=πr
2.Greekgeometryleftmanyunsolvedproblemsaboutcirclesincludingtheproblemofsquaringthecirclei.e.constructingasquarewithanareaequaltothatofagivencircleusingonlyastraightedgeandcompass;itwasfinallyprovedimpossibleinthelate19thcent.seegeometricproblemsofantiquity.Inmodernmathematicsthecircleisthebasisforsuchtheoriesasinversivegeometryandcertainnon-Euclideangeometries.Thecirclefiguressignificantlyinmanycultures.Inreligionandartitfrequentlysymbolizesheaveneternityortheuniverse.。