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戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记英文版1Chapter1What islanguage[A]The origins of languageSome speculationsof the originsof language
①The divinesource The basic hypothesisif infantswere allowedto growup without hearing anylanguage,then theywould spontaneouslybegin usingthe originalgod-given language.Actually,children livingwithout accessto humanspeech in their earlyyears growup withno language at all.
②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theorythe suggestionis thatprimitive wordscould havebeen imitationsof thenatural sounds which earlymen andwomen heardaround them.TheYo-heave-hotheory the sounds producedby humanswhen exertingphysical effort,especially whenco-operating withother humans,may betheoriginsof speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds
③The oral-gesture sourceIt isclaimed thatoriginally aset of physicalgestures wasdeveloped as ameans ofcommunication.The patternsof movementin articulationwould bethe sameas gesturalmovement;hence wavingtongue woulddevelop fromwaving hand.
④Glossogenetics言语遗传学This focusesmainly on the biologicalbasis of the formationand developmentof human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop namingabilityàinteractions andtransactions PhysicaladaptationHuman teethare uprightand roughlyeven inheight.Human lipshave intricatemuscle interlacing,thus makingthem veryflexible.The humanmouth issmall andcontains averyflexible tongue.The humanlarynx islowered,creating alongercavity called the pharynx,and makingit easierfor thehuman tochoke onthe piecesof food,but makingthe soundspeech possible.The humanbrain islateralized.Those analyticfunctionstool-using andlanguageare largelyconfined to the lefthemisphere of the brainfor mosthumans.Two majorfunctions of languageInteractional asocial functionof language.Transactional afunction involvingthe communicationof knowledgeand information[B]The properties of languageLanguage isasystem ofarbitra ryvocal symbols used for human communication.aSystem combinedtogether according to rulesbArbitrary nointrinsic connection between thewordpenand thething in the worldwhich it refers tocVocal theprimary mediumis soundfor alllanguages dHumanlanguage ishuman-specific交际性与信息性Communicative vs.InformativeCommunicative intentionallyusing languageto communicatesomething Informativethrough/via anumber of signalsthat are not intentionallysent Designfeaturesunique propertiesthe definingproperties ofhuman languagethat distinguishit fromany animalsystem ofcommunication
①Displacement跨时空性,移位性Language can be used to refer to contextsremoved from the immediatesituations of the speakerreferto pastand futuretime andto otherlocations
②Arbitrariness任意性There isno logicalor naturalconnectionbetweenalinguistic formeithersound orwordand itsmeaning.While language is arbitraryby nature,it is not entirelyarbitrary.aecho of the sounds of objectsor activitiesonomatopoeic wordsbsome compoundwords
③Productivity能产性,创造性Language isproductive inthat itmakes possiblethe constructionand interpretation of newsignals byits users.Creativity oropen-endedness
④Cultural transition文化传递性While humancapacity forlanguage hasagenetic basiseveryonewas bornwith theability toacquire alanguage,the detailsof anylanguage systemare notgenetically transmitted,but insteadhave to be taughtand learnt.
⑤Discreteness可分离性Each soundin the language istreated asdiscrete.
⑥Duality双重结构性,两重性或二元性Language isorganized attwo levelsor layerssimultaneously.The loweror basiclevel isastructure ofsoundswhich are meaningless.The higherlevel ismorpheme orworddouble articulationThe abovesix propertiesmay betaken as the corefeatures ofhumanlanguage.Vocal-auditory channel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,or rapidfade,these propertiesare besttreated asways ofdescribing humanlanguage,but notasameans ofdistinguishing itfrom othersystems ofcommunication.[C]The developmentof writtenlanguage
①pictogramsideograms象形文字和表意文字Pictogram whensome of the picturescame to represent particularimages inaconsistent way,we can begin todescribe theproduct asaform ofpicture-writing,or pictograms.Ideogram thepicture developedas moreabstract andused otherthan itsentity isconsidered to be part of asystem of idea-writing,or ideogramHieroglyph古埃及象形文字
②Logograms语标书写法When symbolscome to be usedtorepresentwords in alanguage,they aredescribed asexamples of word-writing,or logograms.Arbitrariness-a writing system whichwas word-based hadcome intoexistence.Cuneiform--楔形文字-the Sumerians5000and6000years agoChinese isone exampleof itsmodern writingsystem.Advantages twodifferent dialectscan bebased onthe samewritingsystem.Disadvantages vastnumberofdifferent writtenforms.
③Syllabic writing音节书写法When awritingsystem employsaset ofsymbols whichrepresent thepronunciations ofsyllables,it isdescribed assyllabic writing.The Phoeniciansthe firsthuman beingsthat appliedthe fulluse ofasyllabic writingsystemca1000BC
④Alphabetic writing字母书写法Semitic languagesArabicand Hebrewfirst appliedthis ruleThe Greekstaking theinherently syllabicsystem from the Phoeniciansvia theRomans Latinalphabet andCyrillic alphabetSlaviclanguages
⑤Rebus writingRobus writingevolves aprocesswhereby thesymbol used for anentity comesto beused for thesoundof thespoken wordusedforthat entity.Chapter2What islinguistics[A]The definitionof linguisticsLinguistics is generally definedas thescientific study of language.Process oflinguistic study
①Certain linguisticfacts areobserved,generalization are formed;
②Hypotheses areformulated;
③Hypotheses aretested byfurther observations;
④A linguistictheory isconstructed.Language isasystem ofarbitrary vocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.[B]The scopeof linguisticsGeneral linguistics the study of languageas awholePhonetics thegeneral study of thecharacteristics of speech soundsor the study of the phonic medium of languageHowspeech sounds are producedand classifiedPhonology isessentially thedescription of the systemsand patternsof speech sounds in alanguage.How soundsform systemsand functionto convey meaning Morphologythe study of the way in which morphemesare arrangedto formwordshow morphemesare combinedto formwords Syntaxthe study of thoserules thatgovern thecombination of words to form permissiblesentenceshow morphemesand words are combinedto formsentences Semanticsthe study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics the study ofmeaningincontext ofuse Sociolinguisticsthe study oflanguage with reference to societyPsycholinguistics thestudyoflanguagewithreferenceto the workingsof themind Appliedlinguisticstheapplication oflinguistics principlesand theoriesto languageteaching andlearning Anthropologicallinguistics,neurological linguistics;mathematical linguistics;mathematical linguistics;computational linguistics[C]Some importantdistinctions in linguistics
①Prescriptive vs.Descriptive
②Synchronic vs.Diachronic The description of alanguage atsome pointin time;Thedescriptionof alanguageas itchanges throughtime.
③Speech andwriting Spokenlanguageisprimary,not thewritten
④Langue andparole Proposed by Swisslinguists F.de SaussesociologicalLangue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the membersof aspeechcommunity Parolerefersto the realizationof languein actualuse
⑤Competence andperformance Proposed by theAmerican linguistN.Chomskypsychological Competencethe idealusers knowledgeof therules ofhis languageChapter3Phonetics andphonology[A]The definitionof phoneticsPhonetics thestudyof thephonicmediumoflanguage it is concernedwith allthe soundsthat occurin theworlds languages.Articulatory phoneticsthestudyof how speechsounds are made,or articulated.Acoustic phoneticsdeals with the physicalpropertiesof speech assound wavesin the air.Auditoryor perceptualphoneticsdeals with the perception,via theear,of speechsounds.Forensic phoneticshas anapplication inlegal casesinvolving speakeridentification and the analysisof recordedutterances.[B]Organs of speech Voicelesswhen the vocal cords are spreadapart,the airfrom thelungs passesbetween themunimpeded.Voiced whenthe vocal cordsaredrawn together,theairfrom thelungs repeatedpushes themapart asit passesthrough,creating avibrationeffect.All theEnglish vowelsare typicallyvoicedvoicing.The importantcavitiesThe pharyngealcavity Theoral cavityThe nasalcavity Lips,teeth,teeth ridgealveolus,hard palate,soft palatevelum,uvula,tip oftongue,blade oftongue,back oftongue,vocal cords[C]Orthographic representationof speechsounds Broadand narrowtranscriptions IPAInternationalPhonetic Alphabet/Association Broadtranscription the transcription withletter-symbols onlyNarrow transcriptionthetranscriptionwith diacriticsE.g.[l]à[li f]--àa clear[l]no diacritic[l]à[bild]--àa dark[l]~[l]à[helW]--àa dental[l]à[pit]--àan aspirated[ph]hà[spit]--àan unaspiratedno diacritic[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabicnasal[n]7[D]Classification ofEnglish consonantsIn terms of mannerof articulationthemanner inwhich obstruction is created
①Stops theobstruction istotal orcomplete,and thengoing abruptly/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]
②Fricatives theobstruction ispartial,and theair isforced throughanarrow passagein themonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h]approximant
③Affricates theobstruction,complete atfirst,is releasedslowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]
④Liquids theairflow isobstructed butis allowedto escapethrough thepassage betweenpart orparts of the tongueand theroof of the mouth[l]àa lateralsound;[r]àretroflex
⑤Glides[w],[j]semi-vowels Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants
⑥Nasals thenasal passageis openedby loweringthe softpalate tolet airpass throughit[m],],n[By placeof articulationtheplace whereobstructioniscreated
①bilabials upperand lower lips arebrought togetherto createobstructions/[b],[w]àvelar
②labiodentals thelowerlipand theupper teeth[f]/[v]
③dentals thetip of the tongueand theupper frontteeth[W]/[T]
④alveolars thefront partof the tongue onthe alveolar ridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]
⑤alveo-palatalspalato-alveolars tongueand thevery frontof the palate,near thealveolarridge[F]/[V],[t]/[d]
⑥palatal tonguein themiddle of thepalate[j]
⑦velars theback of the tongueagainst thevelum[k],[g],[N]…[w]
⑧glottals theglottal is the spacebetween thevocalcordsin thelarynx[h][E]Classification ofEnglish vowelsFront iCentral BackClose i`uu Semi-close eESemi-open ECOpen AB QRB
①The highestposition of thetonguefront,central,back;
②The opennessof themouth close,semi-close,semi-open,open;
③The roundnessshapeof the monththelipsAll thefront,central vowelsare unroundedvowels except[B]All theback vowels,except[A]are roundedvowels
④The lengthof thesound longvowelsshort vowelsLarynxtenseorlax Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinalvowels[F]The definitionof phonologyPhonetics is interested inallthespeechsoundsused inall humanlanguages;how they are produced,how theydiffer fromeach other,what phoneticfeatures theypossess,how they can beclassified,etc.Phonology,onthe other hand,isinterested in thesystemofsoundsofaparticular languages;it aimsto discoverhowspeechsounds in alanguage formpatterns andhow thesesoundsareusedto conveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.[G]Phone,phoneme,and allophonePhone thedifferent versions of theabstract unit–phoneme Phonemethe mean-distinguishing soundinalanguage,placed inslash marksAllophone a setofphones,all of which areversions of one phoneme[G]Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimalpair Phonemiccontrast when two phonemescan occurin the same environmentsin two words and they distinguish meaning,theyre inphonemic contrast.E.g.pinbinà/p/vs./b/roperobeà/p/vs./b/Complementary distributiontwo or more thantwo allophonesof the same phonemesare said to bein complementarydistribution becausetheycan not appearat thesame time,or occurin differentenvironment,besides theydo notdistinguishmeaning.Minimal pairwhen twodifferent formsare identical in everyway exceptfor one sound segmentwhich occursin thesame placein thestrings,the twosoundsaresaidtoform aminimalpair.When agroupof wordscan bedifferentiated,each onefrom theothers,by changingone phonemealwaysin thesame position,then all of thesewords constituteaminimal sets.[H]Some rulesin phonology
①sequential rulesSyllable Onsetrime Nucleuscoda[Consonant]vowel[consonants]Phonotactics of3Cs occurringin onsetNo1_/s/_voiceless stops/p/,/t/,/k/_approximants/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2The affricates[tF]/[dV]and thesibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]arenottobefollowed byanother sibilants.
②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effectsthe processof makingonesoundalmost at thesametime asthe nextis calledco-articulation.Assimilationelision effectsAssimilation twophonemes occurin sequenceand someaspect ofone phonemeis takenor copiedby theother E.g.nasalize avowelwhen it is followedby anasalsound.
③deletion rule-Elision Definitiontheomission ofasound segmentwhich wouldbe presentin deliberatepronunciation of aword in isolation E.g.delete a[g]when itoccurs beforeafinal nasalconsonant[I]Suprasegmental features
①Stress Wordstresssentence stressThe stressoftheEnglish compoundsalways onthe firstelement
②Tone DefinitionTones arepitch variations,which arecaused by the differingrates ofvibration ofthevocalcords.Pitch variationscan distinguishmeaning justlike morphemes.Tone language,like Chinese,has four tones.Level,rise,fall-rise,fall
③Intonation Whenpitch,stress andsound lengthare tiedto the sentence ratherthan theword inisolation,they arecollectively knownas intonation.English thefour basictypes ofintonation,or thefourtonesThe fallingtone,the rising tone,the fall-risingtone,and therise-fall toneChapter4Morphology[A]The definitionof morphologyMorphology isabranch of grammar whichstudies theinternal structureof wordsand therules by which words areformed.Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphologylexicalmorphology Morphemethe smallestmeaningful components of wordsA minimalunit ofmeaning orgrammatical function[B]Free morphemesboundmorphemes Freemorphemes canstand bythemselves assingle wordsàLexical morphemes[n.a.v]functional morphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.]Bound morphemescannotnormally standalone,but whichare typicallyattached toanother formàDerivational morphemes--àaffixsuffix,infix,prefix+rootàInflectional morphemesà88types ofinflectional morphemesin EnglishNoun+-s,-s[possessive;plural]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rd personpresent singular;present participle;past tense,past participle]Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative][C]Derivational vs.inflectional Inflectional morphemes neverchange the grammatical categoryof awordInflectionalmorphemesinfluence thewhole category;Derivational morphemesare oppositeOrderrootstem+derivational+inflectional[D]Morphological RulesN.+lyàa.;A.+lyàadv.;guard overgeneralization[E]Morphs andallomorphs Morphsthe actualforms usedto realizemorphemes Allomorphsasetof morphs,allofwhichareversionsofone morpheme,we referto themas allomorphsof thatmorpheme.[F]Word-formation process
①Coinageàthe inventionof totallynew terms
②Borrowingàthe taking over of words formother languagesLoan-translationClaqueàa directtranslation ofthe elementsof awordinto theborrowing languageStand alonetobethe oppositeofword-formation
③Compoundingàa joiningof two separate wordsto produceasingle formFeatures ofcompounds aOrthographically,a compoundcan bewritten asone word,with orwithout ahyphenin between,or astwoseparatewords.bSyntactically,the partofspeech ofthecompound isgenerally determinedbythepartofspeechofthe second element.cSemantically,the meaning of acompoundis oftenidiomatic,not alwaysbeing the sum totalofthe meanings ofits components.dPhonetically,the stressof acompoundalw aysfalls onthe firstelement,While thesecondelementreceives secondarystress.
④Blendingàtakingoverthe beginningofone word andjoining itto theend of other word
⑤Clippingàa wordof more than onesyllable reducedto ashorterform
⑥Back formationàa processbywhichnew words are formed by takingaway thesuffix ofan existingword Hypocorismsàclipping or+ie
⑦Conversionàcategory change,functional shift
⑧Acronymsànew words are formedfromtheinitial lettersof asetofotherwords
⑨Derivationàthe newwordsareformedbythe additionof affixesto theroots,stems,or words⑩Abbreviationàa shortenedform ofaword orphrase whichrepresents thecomplete formAnalogy Chapter5Grammar[A]Types ofgrammar The studyofgrammar,or thestudyofthe structureof expressions inalanguage,has averylong tradition.
①Mental grammara formof internallinguistic knowledgewhich operatesin theproduction andrecognition ofappropriately structuredexpressionsinthat language.àPsycholog ist
②Linguistic etiquettethe identificationoftheproper orbest structurestobeused inalanguage.àSociologist
③Thestudyand analysisofthe structures foundinalanguage,with theaim ofestablishing adescriptionofthegrammar ofEnglish,e.g.as distinctfromthegrammar ofRussia orFrench.àLinguist[B]The partsofspeechNouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctionsàthegrammaticalcategories of words insentences[C]Traditional grammarCategoriesand analysisOther categoriesnumber,person,tense,voice andgender AgreementEnglish languagenaturalgender GrammaticalgenderàFrench[D]Types ofgrammar concerninganalysis Theprescriptive approachThe view ofgrammaras asetof rulesfor theproper useof alanguageThe descriptiveapproach analystscollect samplesofthe language theyare interestedin andattempt todescribe theregular structures ofthelanguageatit isused,not accordingto someviewofhow itshould beused.[E]Structural andimmediate constituentanalysisIC AnalysisStructural analysisto investigatethe distinctionof formse.g.morphemesin alanguageIC Analysishow smallconstituentsComponentsin sentencesgo togethertoformlarger constituents[F]Labeled andbracketed sentencesHierarchical organizationoftheconstituents inasentence Labeleach constituentwith grammaticalterms such as Art.N.NP Chapter6Syntax[A]The definitionof syntaxAsubfield oflinguistics thatstudies the sentence structureoflanguage[B]Thebasiccomponentsof asentence SentenceSubject PredicateReferring expressioncomprises finiteverb oraverb phrase and sayssomething about the subject[C]Types of sentences Simplesentence consists of asingleclause whichcontains asubjectand apredicateand standsalone asits ownsentence.CoordinateCompoundsentence contains two clausesjoined byalinking wordcalled coordinatingconjunctions,such asand,by,or…Complex sentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,one ofwhich isincorporated into theotherEmbedded clauseàmatrix clause
①subordinator
②f unctionsas agrammaticalunit
③may becomplete[D]The linearand hierarchicalstructuresofsentences Whenasentence isuttered orwritten down,the words ofthesentence areproduced oneafter anotherin asequence,which suggeststhestructureof asentence is linear.But thesuperficial arrangementofwords in alinearsequence doesnot entailthat sentences are simplylinearly-structured;sentencesareorganized withwordsofthesamesyntactic category,such asNP orVP,grouped together.Tree diagramof constituentstructure Bracketsand subscriptlabels[E]Some categoriesSyntactic categoriesrefertoaword oraphrase thatperforms aparticulargrammatical function,suchasthe subjector thepredicate Lexicalcategories partsofspeechMajor lexicalcategoriesopen categoriesN.V.Adj.Adv.Minor lexicalcategoriesclosed categoriesDet.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasal categoriesNP,VP,PP,AP[F]Grammatical RelationsThe structuraland logicalfunctional relationsof constituentsIt concernsthewayeach noun phrase in thesentencerelates tothe verbSubject ofand direct object ofStructural subject,structural objectLogical subjectthedoer ofthe action,the logicalobjectthe recipientofthe action Thesetwo groupsof subjectsand objectsmay havedifferent positions[G]Combinational rulesAre smallin numberàYield allthe possiblesentences Ruleouttheimpossible ones
①phrase structure rulesrewrite rulesSàNP VPA sentenceconsistsof,or isrewritten as,a nounphraseandaverb phraseNPàDet.Adj.NPPS Anoptional determiner….and obligatorynoun,VPàVNPPOPS APàAPPS PPàP NP
②the recursivenessof phrasestructure rulesSignificantly,the aboverules cangenerate aninfinite numberofsentences,and sentenceswith infinitelength,due totheir recursiveproperties.
③X-bar theoryHeadàan obligatoryword thatgivers thephrase itsname XPor X-phrase XPàSpecifierXcomplement FormulaXàSpec X X-bar theoryX-bar schemaXàX complTree diagramX SpecifierXXcomplement[H]Syntactic movement and movementrules Syntacticmovementoccurs whenaconstituent inasentence movesout ofits originalplace to anew placeTransformational rules
①NP-movementandWH-movement NP-movement activevoiceàpassive voicePostposing,preposing WH-movement affirmativeàinterroga tiveLeftward mattertothesentence initial-position
②Other typesof movementAux-movement themovement ofan auxiliarytothesentence-initial position
③D-structure andS-structure Twolevels ofsyntactic representationof asentencestructureOne thatexists beforemovement takesplace Theother thatoccurs aftermovement takesplace Formallinguistic explorationD-structure phrasestructurerules+lexicon Sentenceatthelevel ofD-structure Theapplication ofsyntactic movementrules transformsasentence fromD-structure levelto S-structure levelTransformational-generative lineof analysis
④Moveα–ageneral movementrule Moveany constituentto anyplace Certainconstituents canmove toonly certainpositions[I]Universal GrammarUGPrinciples-and-parameters theoryUG isasystem oflinguistic knowledgeand ahumanspecies-specific giftwhich exitsin themind orbrain ofanormal humanbeing andwhich consistsof somegeneral principlesand parametersabout natural languages.
①general principlesof UGCase conditionprinciple anounphrasemust havecase andcase isassigned byVor Ptothe objectposition orby Auxtothesubject positionAdjacency conditionor Caseassignment acase assignorand acaserecipient shouldstay adjacencyto eachother.It isstrictly observedin Englishwell-formed sentences,not otherlanguagesno otherphrasal categorycan intervenebetween averband itsdirectobjectThe Adjacencycondition mustbe subjectto parametricvariation inorder toexplain theapparent adjacencyviolations suchasinFrench.
②The parametersof UGParameters aresyntactic optionsof UGthat allowgeneral principles to operatein oneway oranother andcontribute tosignificant linguisticvariations betweenand amongnaturallanguages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The DirectionalityParameteràinvolves word order[Leftward directionality]En VPword orderVPàV NPJp VPwordorderVPàNP VNatural languagesare viewedto varyaccordingtoparameters seton UGprinciplestoparticular values.Chapter7Semantics[A]The definitionof semanticsDefinition thestudyofmeaning fromthe linguisticpoint ofview[B]Some viewsconcerning thestudyofmeaning
①the namingtheory Thelinguistic formsor symbols,in otherwords,the wordsused inalanguage aretaken tobe labelsoftheobjects theystand for;wordsarejust namesor labelsfor things.
②the conceptualistview Theresno directlink betweenalinguistic formand whatitreferstoi.e.between languageand the real world;rather,in theinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinked throughthe mediationof conceptsinthemind.Thought/referenceàconcept Symbol/FormwordsReferentàreal objectProposedbyOgdenRichards
③contextualism JohnFirth Thesituational contextin aparticularspatiotemporal situationLinguistic contextco-text theprobability ofawords co-occurrence orcollocation withanother word
④behaviorismàBloomfield based on contextualistview Behavioristsdefine meaning of alanguageform asthe situationinwhichthe speakerutters itandtheresponse itcalls forthinthehearer Sstimulus rresponse JillJack S---r…s---R thesmall lettersr,sàspeechthe capitalizedletter R,Sàpractical events[C]Sense andreference Senseis concernedwiththeinherent meaningofthe linguistic form,abstract and de-contextualized.Reference meanswhat alinguisticform refersto inthereal,physical world;it dealswiththerelationship betweenthelinguisticelement andthe non-linguistic worldof experienceMoving starIonce wasbitten byadog.Morning starMind you.There isadog overthere.[D]Major senserelations
①synonymyàthe samenessor closesimilarity ofmeaning a.dialectal synonyms--synonyms usedin differentregional dialectsb.stylistic synonyms--synonyms differingin stylec.synonyms thatdiffer in their emotiveor evaluativemeaning d.collocational synonymse.semantically differentsynonyms
②polysemy--onewordthat hasmore thanone relatedmeaning
③homonymy Homophoneswhen twowordsare identical insound Homographswhentwowordsareidenticalinspelling Completehomonyms whentwowordsareidenticalboth inspelling andin SoundEtymology
④hyponymy--inclusiveness The word which is moregeneral in meaning is calledthesuperordinator.Thewordwhichismore specificin meaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym
⑤antonymy--oppositeness Gradableantonyms Complementaryantonyms Relationalopposites pairsofwordsthat exhibitthe reversalof arelationshipbetween items
⑥metonymy Meaningbased onaclose connectionin everydayexperience,ofwhichcan bebased onacontainer-contents relation,a whole-part relation,or arepresentative-symbol relationship
⑦collocation Organizethe knowledgeofwordsin terms of frequentlyoccurring together
⑧prototypes Theconcept ofaprototype helpsexplain the meaningofcertain words,not intermsofcomponent features,but intermsofresemblance tothe clearestexemplar.[E]Sense relationsbetween sentences
①X issynonymous withY
②X isinconsistent withY
③X entailsYY isan entailmentof X
④X presupposesYY isaprerequisite ofX
⑤X isacontradiction
⑥X issemantically anomalous[F]Componential analysisàa wayto analyzelexical meaningSemantic featuresthemeaningofawordcanbedissected intomeaning components,or semanticfeatures Phonemeàdistinctive featuresShow howthose wordsare relatedinmeaning[G]Predication analysisàa wayto analyzesentence meaningproposed by British linguistG.Leech
①themeaningof asentenceis notthesumtotalof themeanings ofall itscomponents
②Grammatical meaningand semanticmeaning Grammaticalityselectional restrictionsSemantic analysisPredicationbasic unitàtheabstract meaningofthesentenceArguments论元predicate谓词Logical participantsSthsaid aboutan argumentor statesthe logicalrelation linkingthe argumentsinasentence Thepredicate canbe regardedasthemain element.Tom smokes.àTOMSMOKEàone-place predicationKids likeapples.àKID,APPLELIKEàtwo-place predicationIts raining.àRAINàno-place predicationChapter8Pragmatics[A]The definitionof pragmaticsDefinition thestudyofhow speakersofalanguageuse sentencesto effectsuccessful communicationWhat essentiallydistinguish semanticsand pragmaticsis whetherinthestudyofmeaning thecontext ofuse isconsidered.If it isnot,it issemanti cs.If itis,itispragmatics.[B]Context Itisgenerallyconsidered asconstituted bythe knowledgesharedbythe speakerandthehearer.Linguistic contextàco-text Physicalcontext[C]Sentence meaningv.utterance meaningThe dogis barking.If wetake it as agrammaticalunit andconsider itas aself-contained unitinisolation,then wetreat itas asentence.If wetake itas somethingaspeaker uttersin acertainsituation withacertain purpose,then weare treatingitasan utterance.Meaning ofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized.Meaning ofan utteranceis concrete,and contextualized.Utterance isbasedonsentence meaning;itis the realizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentencein arealsituation ofcommunication,or simplyin acontext.[D]Speech ActTheory言语行为理论Direct speech act IndirectspeechactFace-threatening Face-saving ProposedbyBritishphilosopher JohnAustin inthe late1950s Answerwhat dowe dowhen usinglanguage Constativesstatements thateither stateor describe,and thusverifiable Performativessentences thatdont stateafact ordescribe astate,and arenot verifiableperformcertain actsGave thedistinction betweenconstatives andperformatives andgave risetoanewmodel[A speakermight beperforming threeacts simultaneouslywhen speaking]
①locutionary act言内行为the act of utteringwords,phrases,clauses Itis the actofconveying literalmeaning bymeans ofsyntax,lexicon andphonology.
②illocutionary act言外行为theactof expressingthe speakersintention Itistheact preformedin sayingsomething.
③perlocutionary act言后行为theactperformed byor resultingfrom sayingsomething Itistheconsequence of,orthechange broughtabout bythe utterance.Linguists aremore concernedabout orinterestedinillocutionary act.The classificationof illocutionaryact madeby Americanphilosopher-linguist JohnSearle Fivegeneral categories
①representatives阐述类stating ordescribing,saying whatthe speakerbelieves tobe true
②directives指令类trying toget thehearer todo something
③commissives承诺类committing the speaker himselfto somefuture courseof action
④expressives表达类expressing feelingsor attitudetowards anexisting state
⑤declaratives宣告类bringing aboutimmediate changesby sayingsomething All the actsthat belongtothesame categoryshare thesame purposeorthesame illocutionarypoint,but theydiffer intheir strengthor force.Alltheutterances thatcanbemade toserve thesame purposemay varyintheirsyntactic form.[E]Principles ofconversationCo-operative principles会话原则或合作原则ProposedbyPaul Grice,a logicianand philosopherThe maximof quantity量准则The maximof quality质准则The maximof relation关联准则The maximof manner方式准则Significance itexplains howitispossible forthe speakertoconveymorethanis literarysaid.CP isnearly alwaysobserved,while thesemaxims arenot,which givesrise toConversationalimplicatures,i.e.thelanguagebecomes indirect.[F]Deixis,reference,anaphora,presupposition
①Deixis Thereare somewordsinthelanguagethat cannotbe interpretedat allunless the physical context,esp.thephysicalcontext ofthespeakeris known.Person deix特别声明1资料来源于互联网,版权归属原作者2资料内容属于网络意见,与本账号立场无关3如有侵权,请告知,立即删除。