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外文文献翻译(2013届)译文一中小企业技术与全球化1译文二中小企业技术与全球化2学生姓名学号院系__allandMedium-SizedEnterprisesTechnologyandGlobalization:IntroductiontoaSpecialIssueon__allandMedium-SizedZoltanJ.AcsEnterprisesintheGlobalEconomyLeePrestonAbstract.Thispaperisanintroductiontothespecialissueon__allandMedium-SizedEnterprisesintheGlobalEconomy.Thepapergivesabroadoutlineofglobalizationtheroleoftechnologyandexaminestherolethat__allandmedium-sizedenterprisesplayintheglobaleconomy.Wefocusonforeigndirectinvestmentof__alltechnologybasedfirmsandhowtheirinnovationsdiffuseintotheglobaleconomyThereislittlequestionthateconomicactivityofalltypesismovinginthedirectionofglobalization.Asweapproachthe21st__nturyaworldwidesystemofproductionanddistributionisevolvinginmuchthesamewayasnational__rketsevolvedfromlocalandregionalnetworksduringthe19th__nturyChandler
1990.Innearlyeveryeconomicallyactivecountryoftheworldtheimportan__ofinternationaltradeandforeigndirectinvestmentFDIh__erisensignificantlyoverthelastdecade.ThegrowthofFDIhasbeenparticularlydra__ticincreasingmorerapidlythaneitherworldproductionorworldtrade.AsaresultbothinboundandoutboundFDIstocksh__eincreasedrelativetototalinvestmentandgrossdomesticproductinnearlyeverycountryDunning
1995.Globalizationreferstotheweboflinkagesandinterconnectionsbetweenstatessocietiesandorganizationsthat__keupthepresentworldeconomicsystem.Globalizationcreatesnewstructuresandnewrelationshipswiththeresultthatbusinessdecisionsandactionsinonepartoftheworldh__esignificantconsequen__sinotherpla__s.Underlyingandreinforcingtheseglobalizationtrendsistherapidlychangingtechnologicalenviro__entparticularlyinbiotechnologyinfor__tionpro__ssingandtelecommunications.Changesintelecommunicationsanddatapro__ssingcapabilities__keitpossibletocoordinateresearch__rketingandproductionoperationaroundtheworld.Almostinstantaneouscommunications__kesitpossibletotradefinancialinstrumentstwenty-fourhoursaday:andthusmorereturn-sensitivearelocationofresour__swithinfirmsindustriesandcountries.Thegrowthofglobal__rketsstimulatescompetitionandfor__sgover__entstoadopt__rket-orientedpoliciesbothdomesticallyandinternationally.Moderntechnologiesh__egreatlyredu__dthecostofinfor__tionandthecapabilitiestoparticipateintheglobaleconomyDunning
1993.Countriesmustjointheclub.Policiesthataimtoexcludeglobalparticipationviatradeandinvestmentbarrierscanbeeasilycircumventedandtheykeepnohostagesbutdeprivethecountriesofglobalprosperity.Alongwiththeglobalizationtrendcontemporarytechnicaladvan__sarede__ndingamuchclosersynthesisandmoreintegrativelearningbetweeninnovativeandproductionactivities.Thepressuresofglobalcompetitionfor__produ__rstocontinuallyinnovateandtoupgradethequalityofexistingproducts.Yetatthesametime__nyfirmscannolongeracquireoraffordallthetechnologicalandhu__nresour__sthattheyneed.Increasinglytheyforminterdependentandflexiblerelationshipswithotherfirms–includingsuppliersandcompetingfirms–tofullycapitalizeontheircorecompetenciesGomesCasseres
1996.Interdependen__callsforacapacityonthepartoffirmsindividualsandgover__entstointeractwithspeedflexibilityandcreativitytotheactionsofotheragentsdelaMotheandPaquet1996Inthisnewenviro__entknowledgeandin____ectuallaborarebeingmobilizedonamorecollaborativebasis.Firmsmustdevelophu__nresour__strategiesbasedonsynthesiswitheducationalinstitutions.Theymustlocatedesignandproductionfacilitiesinmetropolitanareasthatallowpartnershipswithsuppliersandeducationalinstitutionsandinpla__sservedbygover__entscommittedtobusiness-friendlypolicies.The__informofeconomicorganizationinintermediaryproduct__rketsisincreasinglyanetworkofinterfirmcooperativearrangementsratherthanthelargehierarchicalfirmReich
1992.Advan__mentintechnologiesand__nagementskillsh__eblurredfirmboundaries.Before1980mostFDIwasofthe“standalone”variety.EachMultinationalEnterpriseMNEwouldexploititsownhome-basedcompetitiveadvantagesandcoordinaterelatedintra-firmactivitiesacrossnationalboundariesthroughinternalmechani__s.Morere__ntlyhoweverMNEsareexpandingtheirterritorialandfunctionalhorizonsbyacquiringorgainingac__sstonewresour__sandcapabilities.Thecriticalfeatureofstrategicasset-seekingFDIasopposedto__rket-seekingFDIisthatparticipatingfirmsrecognizethattheirstand-aloneresour__sandcapabilitiesareinsufficienttosustaintheirinternationalcompetitivenessandthattheyneedtodrawuponresour__sandcapabilitiesofotherstoachievethisgoal.Whilethereare__yreasonswhyfirmsformallian__swithotherfirmsthegreat__jorityofthoseconcludedoverthepastdecadeh__ebeentogainac__sstonewproductorpro__sstechnologiesandorganizationalcompetenciesespeciallythoseper__ivedne__ssarytoadvan__theircorecompetenciesGlobalizationchallenges__nagementandstudentsofbusinesseconomics.AccordingtoconventionalwisdommosttransnationalbusinessactivitiesparticularlythoseinvolvingFDIorcross-borderallian__saretraditionallycarriedoutbylargefirms.Inadditionsomepeopleh__ebelievedthattechnologicalchangerequiresincreasinglylargescaletotaloperationsalongwithincreasingsizeofresearchanddevelopmentresour__s.Theseviewswouldleadonetoexpectthat__allenterpriseswoulddeclineinimportan__astheybecomeoverwhelmedbyglobalfirmsexploitingeconomiesofscale.AsthereadersofthisJournalwellknowthereisconsiderableeviden__thatthesecommonlyheldviewsarenolongercorrect.Dependinguponthemeasureofbusinesssizeexaminedthelong-termtrendtowardincreasingfirmsizeeitherde__lerated__asedorreverseditselfsometimebetweenthelate1960sandthelate1970sAcs
1996.Thisleadstoaninterestingquestion:“Istheapparentresurgen__of__allerfirmsduetotheemergen__ofadynamicvitalinnovativeentrepreneurialsectororisitduetotheinabilityoflargeincumbentMNEstoprevailinatechnologicallydynamicglobalenviro__ent”Harrison1994hasarguedthattheroleof__Eshasbeenoveresti__tedandthatMNEsh__ebeenabletoprosperinthenewglobalenviro__entbycombiningfourbasicbuildingblocks:returningtotheircorecompetencies;usingnewinfor__tiontechnologies;formingstrategicallian__s;andelicitingmoreactivecollaborationfromtheirworkers.Howeverthisviewoverlooksthesynergybetweenlargeand__allfirmsthestrongattachmentof__allfirmstotheirlocaleconomiestheroleof__allfirmsintechnologicalchangeandtheroletheyplayinthegrowthandevolutionofindustriesAcs
1995.Infactthereisampleeviden__that__allandmediumsizedenterprise__Esh__enotonlyflourishedindomesticeconomiesbutthattheirinternationalpresen__hasgrownaswellUNCTAD1993;__sataka1995aand1995b;Admiraal1996;andBuckleyetal.inpress.Howeververylittleisknownaboutthepro__ssesbywhich__Esparticipateintheglobaleconomy.10Forthisreasonthe__nterforInternationalBusinessEducationandResearchCIBERattheUniversityof__rylandorganizedaconferen__ofexpertson“__allandMediumSizedEnterprisesandtheGlobalEconomy”heldonOctober
201995.Theconferen__wasorganizedbyZoltanJ.AcsthenAssociateDirectorofCIBER.Thepri__ryfocusoftheconferen__wasontherolethattechnologyandnetworkorganizationsplayintheglobalactivitiesof__Es.Participantsinthisconferen__examinedtheroleof__EsintheidentificationoftechnologicalopportunitytechnologicaldiversityandgeographicallocalizationtechnologytransferRDspilloversstrategicallian__sandtheinternationaldiffusionofinnovations.Thepapersappearinginthisspecialissueof__allBusinessEconomicsarerevisedversionsofthosepresentedonthatoccasion.Anoverviewof__Eparticipationintheglobaleconomyrevealsatleastthreelinesofactivity:tradetechnologyandinvestment.Themostcommonlydiscussedtopicin__Esinternationalliteratureistheirroleasexportersfromtheirdomesticjurisdictionstoforeigncustomers.Theopportunitiesandchallengesfacing__Esinthisrolearewellknown.Theconferen__papersdonotaddressthesetopicsinanydetail.Insteadtheyseethatexportactivityaslinkedtotheotheractivitiesthataregivengreateremphasishere.Thesecondmostprominentissueintheliteratureis__Esandtechnologyandparticularly__EsupplierconnectionswithlargerMNEsinlocal__rkets.Intheir______stformtheseconnectionsinvolve“intra-nationalexports”thatisdomesticsalestoforeignfirmswhohappentobeoperatingwithinthehomecountryofthesupplier.Theimportan__oftheseconnectionsisstressedbyPorter1993inhisdiscussionoftheroleof“relatedandsupportingindustries”andDunning1993undertheheadingof“linkagesandspillovereffects”ofMNEs.Theseconnectionscameupforexplicitattentionattheconferen__pri__rilyinconnectionwithtechnologicalopportunitytechnologicdiversitytechnologytransferandRDspillovers.TheemphasiswasmostlyontransferoftechnologyfromMNEstotheir__EsuppliersandcostumersalthoughitwasalsoacknowledgedtheMNEsmightalsoacquiretheappropriatetechnologyfromlocal__Esandpossiblyeventuallyacquirethe__Efirmsthem-selvesaswell.Thefinalissueisthe__Eroleininvestmenttheconnectionbetween__EsandFDI.__Es__yevolveasmultinationalseitherthroughtheirowninvestmentsorasaresultofthefor__tionofallian__s.Thequestionsofwhy__Esgoabroadhowtheydoitandwhataretheconsequen__softhisactivityareexaminedcarefullyinthepapersinthisvolume.Westartbyexaminingthetechnologicalbasisof__Es.Thoughinaggregate__EsspendlessonRDthanlargefirmstheyprodu__almosttwi__as__nyinnovationsonaperemployeebasisAcsandAudretsch
1990.In1993U.S.__Esre__ive
3.8per__ntoffederalRDdollarsandperformed
14.5per__ntofcompanyfundedindustrialRDU.S.NationalScien__Foundation
1996.In1991__Esre__ived40per__ntofalldomesticutilitypatentsgrantedintheUnitedStatesU.SPatentandTrade__rkOffi__
1996.Re__ntlyCohenandKlepper1996h__esuggestedthatwhile__allfirms__ybesuperiorinthegenerationofnewknowledgelargerfirmsaresuperiorintheirabilitytoappropriatereturnsfromtheseinnovationseitherbybuyingpropertyrightsacquiringthefirmsorbenefitingthroughspillovers.Thisraisedtwoimportantquestions:1Whyare__Essuperiorinnovatorsinthefirstpla__and2Howdoweexplainthesuperiorinnovativeperfor__n__of__EsiftheyspendlessonRDthanlargefirmsWhy__EsaresuperiorinnovatorsisexaminedinthefirstpaperbyAcsMorckSh__erandYeung.Thecriticalroleofpropertyrightsincapitalisteconomiesisbecomingincreasinglyevident.Societiesmustprotectinnovators’propertyrightstothegainsfromtheirinnovations.Anadditionalangleinthepaperisthatitalsoemphasizesaninnovator’spropertyrightswithinanorganization.Aninnovatorinalargecompanyonlyhasverylimitedpropertyrightsprotection.Thenewproductpro__ssetc.generallybelongstothefirmnottheemployeewhoinventedit.Thisredu__screativeemployees’in__ntivestoinnovateforthecompany.Thelackofclearpropertyrightsinlargecorporationscreatesperversein__ntivesforbothemployeesand__nagers.Bothcanbenefitfrom“freeriding”onotherpeople’sinnovativeeffortsandresults.翻译:文摘摘要本文介绍了特殊问题的中小企业在全球经济本文给出了一个全球化的大纲科技的作用同时也将检视这个中小企业在全球经济中所扮演的这个角色我们专注于外国直接投资的小公司和他们的技术为基础的创新扩散到全球经济的现象.毫无疑问经济活动的类型是朝着全球化的方向当我们接近21世纪全球系统生产和分配的进步在很大程度上与是由于国家市场从当地和地区网络进化而来的.在20世纪钱德勒1990在过去的十年国际贸易和外国直接投资FDI几乎在每个国家的经济活动中的重要性已经明显增加在.外国直接投资的增长尤其戏剧化比世界生产或世界贸易增加更多结果相对于总投资和国内生产总值几乎在每个国家邓宁1995两个入站和出站FDI股票增加了全球化指的是web的状态之间的__和社会和__相互连接弥补当前世界经济体系全球化创造了新结构、新关系结果导致业务决策和行动在一个世界的其他地方造成重大的影响加强了这些全球化趋势是快速变化的技术环境特别是在生物技术、信息处理和通信领域__和数据处理能力的增强使它可以协调研究在世界各地的生产作业和营销几乎瞬时的通讯使人们有可能使用贸易金融工具一天24小时因此更多的返回敏感位置内的资源公司、行业和国家.全球市场的增长__竞争迫使在国内和国外__采取以市场为导向的政策现代技术大大降低了参与全球经济成本的信息和能力邓恩1993国家必须加入俱乐部政策旨在排除全球参与通过贸易和投资壁垒可以很容易地绕过和他们保持没有__但剥夺了国家的全球繁荣随着全球化趋势现代技术进步要求一个更综合、更综合在创新和生产活动之间学习全球竞争的压力迫使生产商不断创新和升级现有产品的质量然而与此同时许多公司不再能够获得或提供所有的技术和人力资源他们需要越来越多地与其他公司形成相互依赖和灵活的关系——包括供应商和相互竞争的公司——充分利用他们的核心竞争力GomesCasseres1996相互依存呼吁部分公司、个人和__与速度、灵活性和创造性的行为其他代理delaMothe和Paquet1996在这个新环境的知识和智力劳动被动员起来更协作的基础公司必须__基于合成与教育机构的人力资源策略他们必须找到在大都市地区设计和生产设施允许合作伙伴与供应商和教育机构服务于地方__致力于商业友好政策经济__的主要形式在中间产品市场正日益成为一个网络公司的国际合作安排而不是等级森严的大型公司帝国1992在技术进步和管理技能之间有模糊公司边界在1980年之前大多数外国直接投资是“__”品种每个跨国企业外资将利用自己的以家庭为基础的竞争优势和协调相关公司内部活动跨越国界通过内部机制最近然而跨国公司正在扩大他们的领土和功能的视野或通过收购获得新资源与能力关键特性的战略资产寻求外国直接投资而不是市场寻求外国直接投资参与公司承认他们的__资源与能力都不足以维持他们的国际竞争力他们需要利用别人的资源和能力来实现这一目标虽然有可能某些原因与其他公司的公司结盟绝大多数的那些总结过去十年一直为获得新产品或过程、技术和__能力尤其是那些认为需要推进他们的核心竞争力.全球化挑战管理和商业经济学的学生根据传统观念大多数跨国商业活动特别是那些涉及外国直接投资或跨国联盟传统上是由大公司进行此外一些人认为技术变革需要越来越大的规模总运算以及增加大小的研究和__的资源这些观点会导致人们预计小企业将下降因为他们成为重要性被全球公司利用规模经济这__的读者一样清楚有大量证据表明这些普遍持有的观点不再是正确的根据大小是衡量企业__趋势增加企业规模要么减慢停止或逆转在本身之间的某个时候_____代末和1970年代后期Acs1996这导致一个有趣的问题:“是明显复苏的小公司由于出现了一个动态的、至关重要的创新企业部门还是由于大型跨国公司的__创造了在一个技术动态全球环境“哈里森1994认为这个角色的中小企业已经被高估了跨国公司已经能够繁荣在新的全球环境结合四个基本构建块:回到他们的核心竞争力;利用新的信息技术形成战略联盟诱发更积极合作从他们的工人然而这种观点忽略了大型和小型企业之间的协作强劲的附件的小公司到当地经济发展的作用小公司在技术变化其扮演的角色的发展和演化的行业Acs1995事实上有充分的证据表明中小企业虽然在国内经济繁荣但他们的国际影响力增长是非常小的.为了知道过程中小企业参与全球经济的这个原因国际商业中心的教育和研究CIBER在马里兰大学__了一次会议的专家在“中小型企业和全球经济》1995年10月20日__这个会议是由佐尔坦•j.Acs担任CIBER副主任会议的重点是在技术和网络__的角色发挥中小企业在全球活动的作用参与者在这个会议检查了中小企业的作用在识别技术的机会技术的多样性和地理定位、技术转让、研发外溢战略联盟国际扩散的创新论文在这个特殊问题的小型商业经济的修订版本就出现在那个时候概述中小企业参与全球经济的揭示了至少有三个活动:贸易、技术、投资最常讨论的话题在中小企业是他们作为出口商从国内司法管辖区外国客户中小企业面临的机遇和挑战在这个角色是众所周知的这个会议不解决这些主题在任何细节相反他们看到出__动是作为链接到其他活动.强调了这里第二个最突出的问题是中小企业和技术特别是中小企业供应商关系与较大的跨国公司在当地的市场最简单的形式这些连接涉及“国内出口”即国内销售给外国公司那些碰巧操作在祖国的供应商这些连接的重要性是强调通过波特1993在他的角色的讨论“相关和配套产业”邓宁1993标题下的“__和溢出效应”的跨国公司这些连接是在会议上明确__主要在连接技术的机会技术多样性、技术转让、和研发外溢重点主要是跨国公司的技术关于他们的中小企业供应商和客户虽然它也承认跨国公司也可能获得适当的技术从本地的中小企业外并也可能最终获得他们自己的中小企业最后的问题是中小企业的作用在投资中小企业和外商直接投资之间的__中小企业可能演变为跨国公司通过自己的投资或结果的形成联盟这个问题是___中小企业出国他们是如何做到的以及这样的结果是什么活动我们将首先分析中小企业的技术基础虽然在中小企业在研发上比大公司投入少他们产生两倍的创新在每个员工的基础上1993年美国中小企业获得
3.8%的联邦研发经费和执行
14.5%的公司资助工业研发美国国家科学基金会1996年中小企业在1991年得到40%的国内授权的实用专利在美国U年代专利和商标办公室1996最近科恩和克莱伯1996表明小公司将会产生新的知识能比大公司的能力都优于适当回报这些创新要么通过__产权收购这些公司或通过溢出中获益这带来了两个重要问题:1___中小企业优越的创新者在第一个地方吗2我们如何解释优越的创新性能的中小企业如果他们在研发上比大公司投入少___中小企业产权的重要角色在资本主义经济正变得越来越明显社会必须保护创新者的财产权利从他们的创新的成果它也强调一个创新者的产权__中对比在一个大公司的革新者只有非常有限的产权保护新产品、过程等一般属于公司而不是员工谁发明了它这减少了创造性的员工为公司创新动力缺少明确的产权在大型企业创造了不正当的动机对于雇员和经理两者都可以受益于“搭便车”别人的创新努力和结果Incontrasttoinnovativeemployeesinlargefirmsindependentinnovatorscanholdclearpropertyrightscanh__eeveryin__ntivetoundertakeradicalinnovationsandcanbelargelyfreeofredtape.Thustheyarguethat__Esarebetteratcreatingradicalinnovationsbecausetheybetterprotecttheinnovator’spropertyrights.Acsetal.furtherarguethattheinternationaldiffusionof__Esinnovationsisimportantforglobaleconomicwelfare.However__Esh__eonlylimitedoperationsabroad.Onereasonforthisisbarrierstoentry.Barrierstoentrythatlimitinternationalexpansionaresyste__ticallyhigherfor__Esthanforlargerfirms.Theotherreasonisthat__Esh__elessresour__stoprotecttheirpropertyrights.TheAuthorssuggestthatthesedifficultiesfa__dby__Esininternational__rketscanfrequentlybecircumventedbyusingexistingMNEsasinternationalconduitsfor__Esinnovations.MNEscanthusbecatalystsandfacilitatorof__allerfirms’internationalexpansion.Whiledirectexpansionby__Esisthesu__ectofmuchdiscussiontheintermediatedpossibilityhadnotbeengivenmuchattention.Howeversuchintermediatedmodesofexpansionareadverselyaffectedbytransactiondifficultiesandintermediator’srentextractionwhicharetopicsexploredingreaterdetailsinGomesCasseresKohnandEden’spapers.Acsetal.raiseseveralcon__ptualconsiderationsimportantincomparingthetwomodesofinternationalexpansionandidentifytheconditionsforprivate__rketarrangementstobeefficient.Theydonotbelievedirectsubsi___sto__Esgoingabroadareadvisable.Howdoweexplainthesuperiorinnovativeperfor__n__of__EsInare__ntstudyJaffeetal.1993____yzedpatentcitationdatapertainingtodomesticuniversityandcorporatepatentstotesttheextentoflocalizationofknowledgespillovers.AlmeidaandKogut1995foundthatlocalizationofpatentableknowledgevariesacrossregions.SemiconductorknowledgeintheSiliconValleyandNewYork________tendstobelocalized.Thissuggeststhatcomplementaritiesareimportant.Feld__n
1996.Re__ntliteraturehassuggestedthat__EsbenefitfromRDspilloversfromuniversityresearchandprivateresearchatlargefirmsAcsAudretschandFeld__n1994;andAnselinVargaandAcs
1996.Butwhyshouldthisphenomenonofregionalnetworkingbenefit__allerfirmsratherthanlargeronesOnereasonperhapsisthatlargerfirmsbecauseoftheirpropertyrightsandin__ntivestructurearemoreselfreliantanddonotemphasizebuildingrelationshipswithotherinstitutionsintheregion.Bydefinitionofastartupthepersonnelinanewcompanywillh__eashortertenureinthecompanyandre__ntexperien__inotherfirms.Tostudytheinfluen__ofgeographiclocalizationandtechnologicaldiversityoninnovationAlmeidaandKogutinthesecondpaperexaminetheoriginsofcitationsto170__jorpatentsinthesemiconductorindustry.Fieldresearchconsistingofinterviewswithsemiconductorengineersandotherinformedindividualsservedtocomplementedthepatent____ysis.Theyargue1thatstartupsgaintheircomparativeinnovativeadvantagebyexploringnewtechnologicalspa__sthat__ybeoverlookedbylargerfirmsand2thatthispro__ssisfacilitatedbyregionalnetworkingwhichpermits__allfirmstoobtainanduseknowledgemoreefficientlythanlargefirms.Theyfindthatstart-upsprodu__innovationsinlesscrowdedtechnologicalspa__thanlargerfirms.Thatis__allfirmsaremorelikelytoexploretechnologicallydiverseterritories.Theirempiricalresultspinpointhow__allerfirms__keradicalinnovationsandcomplimentthetheoreticalconjectureinAcsetal.Whileknowledgeislocalizedforbothstart-upsandotherfirmsstart-upsaremorecloselytiedintoregionalnetworkssin__theydependonnetworksforcriticalknowledgeinputs.Knowledgewasmorelocalizedforstart-upsthanotherfirmswithgroupsofentrepreneursplayingacrucialrole.Ifknowledgeflowsarelocalizedthenfirmslocatedindistantregionsareexcludedfromknowledgenetworks.ItisthislocalcharacterofthenetworksthatistheirpotentiallinkwithglobalizationAcsdelaMotheandPacquet
1996.Therefore__alltechnology-basedfirmsareattractiveacquisitiontargetsforMNEsinterestedinenteringnewtechnologicalnetworks.About10per__ntofthe38000newhightechestablishmentslistedintheCorpTechdatabasehadforeignownershipin1994Scien__andEngineeringIndicators1996pp.6–
29.Thenexttwopapersofferexamplesoftheintermediatedformofinternationalexpansionby__Es.If__allfirmsfa__higherbarrierstoentryininternationaloperationsthanlargefirmsandh__eamoredifficulttimeprotectingtheirpropertyrightshowcan__allfirmsbecomeinternationalplayersWhen__Esinvestabroadtheygenerallyseekhelp.InthethirdpaperGomes-Casseresexaminestheuseofstrategicallian__sby__Es.Heasksthreequestions:1Whendo__allfirmsuseallian__stodobusinessabroad2Howdo__allbusinessesuseallian__sand3Whateffectdoallian__sh__eonfirmscompetitiveperfor__n__Thepaperdefinesanewunitofcompetitioncalleda“cons____ation”.Acons____ationisasetoffirmslinkedtogetherbyallian__s.Thepaperfindsthat__allfirmscanfollowoneoftwodifferentapproachestoallian__sdependingontheirrelativesize.Firmsthatare__allrelativetocompe_____sandtotherequirementsofthe__rkettendtouseallian__storeachscaleandscopeeconomies.Firmsthatarelargerelativetothesamebench__rkrelyoninternalcapabilitiestoexpand.Inanyeventtheeviden__showsthat__Esagainsttheexpectationsof__nytraditionalscholarsareactiveplayersintheinternationalarena.InthefourthpaperKohnexamineshow__Esplaytheinternationalgamewhentheychoosenottoteamupwithlargerpartners.Hefindsthatmost__allmultinationalfirmsfollowa“deepnichestrategy”.Thatistheirpositionswerecharacterizedby__rketdominan__andtechno-logicalleadershipandbyafocusonprodu__rgoods.Also__allfirmstendtoinvestinyoungerindustriesratherthanmore__tureones.InfactGomes-CasseresandKohnforthcomingfoundthat__Eshadfewernotmoreallian__sthanonemighth__eexpected.Do__Esfa__highertransactioncoststhanMNEsininternationalexpansionThefifthpaperinthisissueexaminestheroleoftransactioncostsininternationalexpansion.EdenLevitasand__rtinezsurveyalargeliteraturedealingwithinternationalbusinessentrepreneurshipandtechnicalchange;theyprovidealinkbetweenthetechnologicalliteratureon__EsandthetechnologicalliteratureonMNEs.Thepaperexaminesthreeaspectsoftechnology:1technologyasafirm-specificadvantage2thecostsoftechnologytransferand3technologyspillovers.Ineachcasetheyoutlinecurrentviewsanddebatesinthefieldabouttheroleplayedbythelargemultinationalswhichaccordingtothestatisticaleviden__aretheworld’sprincipaltechnologyprodu__rs.Finallytheycomparetheabilityoflargeand__allfirmstoprofitfromtechnology.Theysuggestthat__Esarelesslikelytobeabletoproperly__nagethetechnologytransferpro__sswhenproblemsoccur.Intermsofthecostsoftechnologytransfertheysuggestthat__Es__yfa__highertransactioncoststhatlargeMNEs.Although__Esduetotheirrelativesizebenefitfromredu__dbureaucraticcoststheyalsoh__efewerresour__stodevotetosearchnegotiationmonitoringandenfor__mentefforts.They__yalsobemoresu__ecttoopportunisticbeh__ioronthepartofsuppliersandbuyersduetotheir__allersizeandcorrespondinginabilitytoretaliate.Finally__Es__ybelesslikelytoh__eatightappropriabilityregimeprotectingtheirknowledge-baseandtherefore__yfa__higherrisksofdissipationanditsattendantcosts.ThisviewisconsistentwithCohenandKlepper1996If__alltechnology-basedfirmsh__einfactbecomeinternationalplayersthenhowlargearolearetheyplayingintheglobaleconomyThefiftharticlebyBuckleyexaminestheroleof__Esintechnologytransfer.Itreliesforitsempiricaleviden__ontheUnitedNationsConferen__onTradeandDevelopmentUNCTADreporton__allandmediumsizedmultinationalcorporationsUNCTAD
1993.TheUNCTADstudyontechnologytransferfoundthat__EslikeMNEstransferredtechnologyinternationallyfromtheparentfirm.Themostcommonvehicleforinternationaltransferisviaajointventurewithahostcountrycompany.Thishoweverismuchlessfor__lizedthaninlargeMNEs.Threetypesoftechnologiesarepickedupby__Es:__allscaletechnologieslaborintensivetechnologiesandspecializedhightechnologyknow-how.Thelatterincludedbiotechnologyandmicroelectronics.Thesefirmsfrequentlyutilizejointventuresandnon-equityli__nsingdealsandallian__s.FinallyReynoldsrevisit’sanoldquestion:“Dolarger__rketsf__orlargerfirms”Anumberofre__nt____ysesandeventssuggestthatthetypesoflarge__rketscurrentlyindevelopmentnotonlyprovidesubstantialopportunitiesfor__Esbutthatadynamicnewand__allfirmsectoriscriticalforeconomicgrowthinthese__rkets.ThisbringsusfullcircletotheissuesinitiallyraisedbyAcsetal.andAlmeidaandKogut.Ratherthanweakandvulnerableentitiesthat__yrequiresubsi___snewand__allfirms__ynotonlythriveinnewglobal__rketsbut__ybeane__ssarycomponentforenhan__deconomicwell-beingLucas
1988.Theinternationaldiffusionofnewinnovationsiscrucialforcontinuingimprovementofglobaleconomicwelfare.Inthediffusionpro__ss__Esfa__twoseriouschallenges:propertyrightsprotectionandbarrierstoentry.Iftherateofcreativedestructionisindeedtoolowpublicpoliciesshouldaimtoincreasethecreationandinternationaldiffusionofinnovationsby__Es.The____ysisinthepapersthatfollowsuggeststhatpoliciesshouldaimtoredu__thecostsininternationalexpansionfor__Es.Thatispoliciesshouldaimtoredu__private__rketcostsincurredfortheprotectionofpropertyrightstoredu__entrybarriersandtoredu__transactioncosts.Weshouldnotehoweverthesuggestionsrelyonthepremisesthatweh__etolittlecreativedestruction.Thebroaderquestionwhetherweh__etomuchortoolittlecreativedestructionisnotyetaddressed.Thisbasicquestiondeservesourresearchattention.AcknowledgementsWewishtothankBernardYeungforhelpfulcommentsonanearlierdraft.Allerrorsandomissionsre__inourresponsibility.翻译:相比之下在创造力的员工、__的创新者可以容纳产权清晰、可以有充分动机进行激进的创新可以很大程度上自由的繁文缛节因此他们认为中小企业更善于创造__性创新因为他们更好的保护创新者的产权Acs等人进一步认为国际扩散中小企业创新是重要的全球经济福利然而中小企业只有有限的海外行动原因之一是进入壁垒为限制国际扩张比大公司中小企业系统要求更高另一个原因是中小企业有更少的资源来保护自己产权__认为这些中小企业面临的困境在国际市场可以经常被规避跨国公司通过使用现有的国际渠道应对中小企业的创新跨国公司也因此可以限制催化剂和促进者的小公司的国际扩张而直接膨胀的中小企业受到了很多讨论作为中介可能没有得到太多的__然而这样的扩张作为中介模式负面影响交易困难和国际中介的租金萃取主题非常详细地探索在戈梅斯伊甸园的论文.提出了若干概念性问题重要的两种模式的比较国际扩张并确定条件的私人市场安排是有效的他们不相信直接补贴中小企业出国是明智的我们如何解释优越的创新性能的中小企业呢在最近的一项研究Jaffe等1993分析了专利引文数据等属于国内大学和公司的专利来测试的范围知识溢出的本地化阿尔梅达和科格特发现本地化的专利知识在不同地区半导体知识在硅谷和纽约三角往往是本地化这表明互补性是重要的最近的文献显示中小企业受益于研发外溢从大学研究和大公司的私人研究但___这一现象大公司的利益比小公司的利益而不是更大的吗其中一个原因也许是较大的公司因为他们的财产权和激励结构更自我依靠、不强调建立关系和其他机构在该地区通过定义的启动人员在一个新公司将会有一个较短的任期在公司利用最近的经验在其他公司研究地理定位的影响和技术的多样性在创新阿尔梅达和科格特来自在第二个纸检查引用___到170主要专利在半导体行业实地调查研究包括采访半导体工程师和其他个人的信息用来补充专利分析他们认为中小企业开始获得它们的比较优势探索新技术创新的空间会被大公司压缩在这个过程很容易造成区域性网络允许小公司更有效地获得和使用知识比大公司他们发现初创企业生产创新在拥挤的技术空间相对于大公司这时小公司更有可能探索不同地区的技术他们的实证结果确定小公司如何使激进的创新和恭维理论推测在Acsetal虽然知识是本地化为两个初创企业和其他企业初创公司正在更加密切到区域网络是因为他们依靠网络输入关键知识知识是为初创公司更多的本地化比其他公司和__的企业家发挥了决定性的作用如果知识流都是局部的那么公司位于遥远的地区被排除在知识网络这是这个地方特色的网络是他们的潜在的链接与全球化Acs德拉Mothe和Pacquet1996因此小科技型企业有吸引力的收购目标感兴趣的跨国公司进入新技术网络大约10%的38000个新的高科技企业上市的集团科技数据库有外国所有权会转移.如果小公司比大公司面临更高的进入壁垒的国际业务有一个更困难的时间来保护他们的财产权利小公司如何能成为国际公司中小企业在海外投资时他们通常寻求帮助Gomes-Casseres在检查使用由中小企业的战略联盟之后他问三个问题:1当做小公司使用联盟做海外业务2小企业如何使用联盟吗3有什么影响联盟对企业竞争力的表现吗本文定义了一个新单位的竞争称为“星座”一个星座是一组公司__在一起的联盟本文发现小型企业可以遵循一种不同的方法来联盟这要看他们的相对大小企业相对于竞争对手并和小的市场需求倾向于使用联盟以达到经济规模和范围公司是大型的相对于相同的基准依靠内部功能扩展在任何情况下证据表明中小企业对许多传统学者的预期是活跃在国际舞台上的成员中小企业如何发挥优势当他们选择不与较大的合作伙伴进行合作他发现大多数小型跨国公司遵循“深深的缝隙战略”就是说他们的位置以市场主导地位和techno——逻辑__并由一个专注于生产资料同时小公司倾向于投资于年轻的行业而不是更成熟的行业事实上Gomes-Casseres和科恩即将到来的发现情况有更少而不是更多的中小企业的联盟比人们预期的做中小企业比跨国公司在国际扩张面临更高的交易成本吗在这个问题上的第五论文考察了交易成本的作用在国际扩张伊甸园Levitas和马丁内兹调查一个大型文学处理国际业务企业家和技术改变;他们提供了一个链接技术文献之间的中小企业和跨国公司的技术文献本文检视技术三个方面:1技术作为公司特有的优势2技术转移的成本和3技术外溢在每种情况下他们大纲视图和辩论的电流场关于所发挥的作用大型跨国公司根据统计证据是世界上的主要技术生产商最后他们比较的能力大、小公司利润从技术他们认为中小企业不太可能能够出现问题时妥善管理技术转让过程在成本方面的技术转移他们建议中小企业可能面临更高的交易成本相对于大型跨国公司虽然中小企业由于它们的相对比较小受益于减少官僚成本然而他们也有更少的资源投入到搜索、谈判、监控和执法力度他们也可能更受____行为的部分供应商和买家由于其小的尺寸和相应的无法反馈最后中小企业不太可能拥有一个专用性__保护他们的知识库因此可能面临更高的风险成本的耗散和服务这种观点是符合科恩和克莱伯1996如果小科技型企业事实上成为国际企业那么他们是在全球经济中扮演多大的角色载.它依赖于它的经验证据在___贸易和发展会议UNCTAD报告在中小型跨国公司UNCTAD1993___贸易和发展会议上的研究发现中小企业的技术转移如跨国公司转让技术国际从母公司最常用的工具是通过国际转移与东道国的合资企业公司合作三种类型的技术关于中小企业:小规模技术、劳动密集型技术和专业高技术诀窍后者包括生物技术和微电子学这些公司经常利用合资企业和非股权许可交易和联盟最后雷诺兹重新审视的一个老问题:“做大市场青睐大公司吗“最近的一系列分析和__表明类型的大型市场目前在发展不仅提供了大量的机会但中小企业这一新动态和小公司部门对于经济增长至关重要的这些市场这给我们带来了整圆的问题等人提出的来自于最初Acs和阿尔梅达和科格特德问题而不是软弱和脆弱的实体可能需要补贴新的小公司不仅可以生长在新的全球市场但也许是增强经济福利卢卡斯1988的必要的组件国际扩散的新的创新至关重要的继续改善全球经济福利在扩散过程中小企业面临着两个严重的挑战:产权保护和进入壁垒如果创造性破坏的速度确实过低公共政策的目标应该是提高创建和国际扩散的中小企业的创新在论文的分析表明政策应该遵循旨在降低成本为中小企业的国际扩张这是政策应该旨在减少私人市场费用为保护财产权利减少进入壁垒降低交易成本我们应该注意然而建议依靠的前提我们必须小创造性破坏更大的问题我们是否有太多或太少的创造性破坏还没有解决这个基本的问题值得我们研究的__确认我们要感谢杨贤提供有帮助的评论较早的一份草案所有的错误和遗漏保持我们的责任13。