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GRE孙远工具箱ZERO整理GRE写作工具箱写作工具箱(___—孙远)下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题对于文章中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力这一关,没有任何人能代替你过因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章何况,我并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现IcanthinkinEnglishnow.经常有学生告诉我不知道背诵什么好现在我可以告诉各位背诵下面的文章错不了,至少对GRE的写作来说有立竿见影的效果!可别再找借口了哦!目录TOC\o1-3\h\z\u
1.Sectionone:Education
51.1Proverbs
51.2Da__gingResearch
51.3EducationandCitizenship
51.4TheTeacher’sRole
61.5EducationPhilosophy
71.6StudentLife
71.7_____Education
81.8MoralRelativi__inAmerican
81.9SchoolsShouldTeachValues
101.10CollegePressures
111.11ToErrIsWrong
151.
11.1PlayingItSafe
161.
11.2DifferentLogic
161.
11.3ErrorsasSteppingStones
171.
11.4NegativeFeedback
171.
11.5TryingNewThings
181.
11.6Nature’sErrors
191.
11.7Sum__ry
191.12ThePracticalityoftheLiberalArts__jor
191.13TheLiberalArtsDegreeIs__rketable
201.
13.1SkillsacquiredwithaLiberalArtsBackgroundAreMostDesiredbyEmployers
211.
13.2LiberalArts__jorsCanEnhan__TheirCredentials
211.14TheVastEmptinessattheCoreofToday’sLiberalArtsEducation
221.15EducationasPhilosophy
231.16WhatTrueEducationShouldDo
231.17TheFutureofUniversities
241.18TeachingandLearning:Strategiesforthe21st__ntury
251.19Universitieschangingtomeettheneedsofthe21st__ntury
261.20EducationandTraining
281.21KnowledgeandWisdom
292.SectionTwo:Scien__andTechnology
322.1ComputerinEducation
322.2Computer__ketheWorkpla__LessFriendly
322.3SolarEnergy
342.4Micro__chines
352.5SocialResponsibleinScien__andArts
352.6Enviro__entalStress
362.7HighTechnologyandEmployment
372.8TheEffectsofTechnology
382.9TechnologyandSocialChange
392.10TheQuestforEnergy
402.11TechnologyinEverydayLife
412.12Scien__TechnologyandSociety:TheCaseofMedicalTechnology
422.13TheImpactofTechnology
432.14ScientificInstitutions
432.15TheNormsofScien__
452.16TechnologyinModernSocieties
472.17GalileoandtheInquisition
482.18TechnologyandPeople
493.SectionThree:Ideas
513.1CriticalThinking
513.
1.1Bewillingtosay“Idon’tknow”
513.
1.2Defineyourterms
513.
1.3Practi__toleran__
523.
1.4Understandbeforecriticizing
523.
1.5Watchforhotspots
523.
1.6Considerthesour__
533.
1.7Seekoutalternativeviews
533.
1.8Askquestions
533.
1.9Lookforatleastthreeanswers
543.
1.10Bewillingtochangeyourmind
543.
1.11Layyourcardsonthetable
543.
1.12Examinetheproblemfromdifferentpointsofview
543.
1.13Writeaboutit
553.
1.14Constructareasonableview
553.2TheFunctionofCriticalThinking
553.3CriticalThinkingasThoroughThinking
563.4Creativepeople
563.5TheLowestAni__l
583.6DecisionbyConsensus
594.SectionFour:__ssMedia
624.1PropagandaTechniquesinToday’sAdvertising
624.2TVAddiction
655.SectionFive:Society
675.1TheFunctionofArt
675.2InterculturalPrejudi__s
685.3CultureShock
695.4Groups
705.5Authority
705.6TheNo-StatusSociety
715.7Conformity
715.8DebatingMoralQuestions
725.9ArtasNonverbalCommunication
735.10TurtleIsland
746.SectionSix:Politics
766.1Proverbs
766.2What__kesaLeader
776.3WhatDerailsFast-TrackExecutives
796.4ALeader
806.5Watergate
801.Sectionone:Education
1.1Proverbs
1.Agraduation__remonyisaneventwherethecommen__mentspeaker____sthousandsofstudentsdressedinidenticalcapsandgownsthatindividualityisthekeytosuc__ss.
2.Thepri__rypurposeofaliberaleducationisto__keone’smindapleasantpla__inwhichtospendone’stime.
3.Nextinimportan__to_______andjusti__ispopulareducationwithoutwhichneither_______norjusti__canbeper__nently__intained.
4.Theclassroom--notthetrench--isthefrontierof_______nowandforevermore.
5.Education’spurposeistorepla__anemptymindwithanopenone.
6.Itisthepurposeofeducationtohelpusbecomeautonomouscreativeinquiringpeoplewhoh__ethewillandin____igen__tocreateourowndestiny.
7.Youseerealongoinglifelongeducationdoesn’tanswerquestions;itprovokesthem.
8.Peoplewillpaymoretobeentertainedthaneducated.
9.themostimportantfunctionofeducationatanylevelistodevelopthepersonalityoftheindividualandthesignifican__ofhislifetohimselfandtoothers.Thisisthebasicarchitectureofalife;therestisornamentationanddecorationofthestructure.
10.Theessen__ofoureffortstoseethateverychildhasachan__mustbetoassureeachasequalopportunitynottobecomeequalbuttobecomedifferent-torealizewhateveruniquepotentialofbodymindandspiritheorshepossesses.
11.Agreatteacherneverstrivestoexplainhisvision-hesimplyinvitesyoutostandbesidehimandseeforyourself.
12.Ifyoucanreadanddon’youareanilliteratebychoi__.
1.2Da__gingResearchAstudybyNationalParent-TeacherOrganizationrevealedthatinthe__erageAmericanschooleighteennegativesareidentifiedforeverypositivethatispointedout.TheWisconsinstudyrevealedthatwhenchildrenenterthefirstgrade80per__ntofthemfeelprettygoodthemselvesbutbythetimetheygettothesixthgradeonly10per__ntofthemh__egoodself-i__ges.
1.3EducationandCitizenshipAnimportantaspectofeducationintheUnitedStatesistherelationshipbetweeneducationandcitizenship.Throughoutitshistorythisnationhasemphasizedpubliceducationasameansoftran__ittingdemocraticvaluescreatingequalityofopportunityandpreparingnewgenerationsofcitizenstofunctioninsociety.Inadditiontheschoolsh__ebeenexpectedtohelpshapesocietyitself.Duringthe1950sforexampleeffortstocombatracialsegregationfocusedontheschools.LaterwhentheSovietUnionlaunchedthefirstorbitingsa____iteAmericanschoolsandcollegescameunderintensepressureandwereoffered__nyin__ntivestoimprovetheirscien__and__the__ticsprogramssothatthenationswouldnotfallbehindtheSovietUnioninscientificandtechnologicalcapabilities.Educationisoftenviewedasatoolforsolvingsocialproblemsespeciallysocialinequality.Theschoolstisthoughtcantransformyoungpeoplefromvastlydifferentbackgroundsintocompetentupwardlymobile_____s.Yetthesegoalsseemalmostimpossibletoattain.Inre__ntyearsinfactpubliceducationhasbeenatthe__nterofnumerouscontroversiesarisingfromthegapbetweentheidealandthereality.Partoftheproblemisthatdifferentgroupsinsocietyh__edifferenth__edifferentexpectations.Somefeelthatchildrenshouldbetaughtbasicjob-relatedskills;stillothersbelieveeducationshouldnotonlypreparechildrentocompeteinsocietybutalsohelpthem__intaintheirculturalidentityandinthecaseofHispanicchildrentheirlanguage.Ontheotherhandpolicy__kerscon__rnedwitheducationemphasizetheneedtoincreasethelevelofstudentachievementandtoimproveparentsintheirchildren’seducation.Somereformersandcriticsh__ecalledattentiontotheneedtolinkfor__lschoolingwithprogramsdesignedtoaddresssocialproblems.SociologistCharlesMoscosforexampleisaleaderinthemovementtoexpandprogramslikethePea__CorpsVistaandOutwardBoundintoasystemofvoluntarynationalservi__.Nationalservi__asMoscosdefinesitwouldentail“thefull-timeundertakingofpublicdutiesbyyoungpeoplewhetherascitizensol___rsorcivilianservers-whoarepaidsubsisten__wages”andserveforatleastoneyear.Inreturnforthisperiodofservi__thevolunteerswouldre__iveassistan__inpayingforcollegeorothereducationalexpenses.Advocatesofnationalservi__andschool-to-workprogramsbelievethateducationdoesnoth__etobeconfinedtofor__lschooling.Indevisingstrategiestoprovideopportunitiesforyoungpeopletoservetheirsocietytheyemphasizetheeducationalvalueofcitizenshipexperien__sgainedoutsidetheclassroom.Atthiswritingthereislittleindicationthatnationalservi__willbecomeaneweducationalinstitutionintheUnitedStatesalthoughthecon__ptissteadilygainingsupportamongeducatorsandsocialcritics.
1.4TheTeacher’sRoleGiventheundeniableimportan__ofclassroomexperien__sociologistsh__edoneaconsiderableamountofresearchonwhatgoesonintheclassroom.Oftentheystartfromthepremisethatalongwiththeinfluen__ofpeersstudents’experien__sintheclassroomareof__ntralimportan__totheirlaterdevelopment.Onestudyexaminedtheimpactofasinglefirst-gradeteacheronherstudents’subsequent_____status.Thesurprisingresultsofthisstudyh__eimportantimplications.Itisevidentthatgoodteacherscan__keabigdifferen__inchildren’slivesafactthatgivesincreasedurgencytotheneedtoimprovethequalityofpri__ry-schoolteaching.ThereformscarriedoutbyeducationalleaderslikeJamesComersuggestthatwhengoodteachingiscombinedwithhighlevelsofparentalinvolvementtheresultscanbeevenmoredra__tic.Becausetheroleoftheteacheristochangethelearnerinsomewaytheteacher-studentrelationshipisanimportantpartofeducation.Sociologistsh__epointedoutthatthisrelationshipisasymmetricalorunbalan__dwiththeteacherbeinginapositionofauthorityandthestudenth__inglittlechoi__buttopassivelyabsorbtheinfor__tionprovidedbytheteacher.Inotherwordsinconventionalclassroomsthereislittleopportunityforthestudentstobecomeactivelyinvolvedinthelearningpro__ss.Ontheotherhandstudentsoftendevelopstrategiesforundercuttingtheteacher’sauthority:mentallywithdrawinginterruptingandthelike.Hen__muchcurrentresearchassumesthatstudentsandteachersinfluen__eachotherinsteadofassumingthattheinfluen__isalwaysinasingledirection.
1.5EducationPhilosophyForthepastfiftyyearsourschoolsh__eoperatedonthetheoriesofJohnDewey1859-1953anAmericaneducatorandwriter.Deweybelievedhattheschool’sjobwastoenhan__thenaturaldevelopmentofthegrowingchildratherthantopourinfor__tionforwhichthechildhadnocontextintohimorher.IntheDeweysystemthechildbecomestheactiveagentinhisowneducationratherthanapassivere__ptacleforfacts.ConsequentlyAmericanschoolsareveryenthusiasticaboutteaching“lifeskills”–logicalthinking____ysiscreativeproblem--solving.Theactualcontentofthelessonsissecondarytothepro__sswhichissupposedtotrainthechildtobeabletohandlewhateverlife__ypresentincludingalltheunknownsofthefuture.Studentsandteachersbothregardpurememorizationasanuncreativeandsomewhatvulgar.Inadditionto“lifeskills”schoolsareassignedtosolvetheevergrowingstokeofsocialproblems.Raci__teenagepregnancyalcoholi__druguserecklessdrivingand_______arejustafewofthemodernproblemsthath__eappearedontheschoolcurriculum.ThisallcontributestoahighdegreeofsocialawarenessinAmericanyoungsters.
1.6StudentLifeTothestudentsthemostnotabledifferen__betweenelementaryschoolandthehigherlevelsisthatinjuniorhightheystart“changingclasses”.Thismeansthatratherthanspendingthedayinoneclassroomtheyswitchclassroomstomeettheirdifferentteachers.Thisgivesthemthreeorfourminutesbetweenclassesinthehallwayswhereagreatdealoftheimportantsocialactionofhighschooltraditionallytakespla__.Studentsh__elockersinthesehallwaysaroundwhichthycongregate.Societyingeneraldoesnottakethebusinessofstudyingveryseriously.Schoolchildrenh__eagreatdealoffreetimewhichtheyareencouragedtofillwithextracurricularactivities—sportsclubscheerleadingscouts—supposedtoinculcatesuchqualitiesasleadershipsport__anshipabilitytoorganizeetc.thosewhodon’tbecomeengagedinsuchactivitiesorh__eafter\schooljobsh__eplentyofopportunityto“hangout”listentoteenagermusicandwatchtelevision.ComparedtoothernationsAmericanstudentsdonoth__emuchhomework.Stu___salsoshowthatAmericanparentsh__elowerexpectationsfortheirchildren’ssuc__ssinschoolthanothernationalitiesdo.HistoricallytherehasnotbeenmuchcorrelationbetweenAmericanschoolsuc__ssandsuc__ssinlaterlife.“He’sjustnotascholar”theAmericanparentsmightsaycontentthattheirsonisontheswimteamanddoesn’ttakedrugs.SomeoftheyoungdochoosetostudyhardforreasonoftheirownsuchasdeterminingthattheroadtorichesliesthroughHarvardBusinessSchool.WhatAmericanschoolsdoeffectivelyteachisthecompetitivemethod.Ininnumerablewayschildrenarepittedagainsteachother—whetherinclassroomdiscussionspellingbeesreadinggroupsortests.Everyclassroomisexpectedtoprodu__ascatteringofA’sandF’steachersoftengradeA=ex__llent;B=good;C=__erage;D=poor;andF=failed.AteacherwhogivesallA’slookstoosoft—sostudentsareawarethattheyarecompetingforthelimitednumberoftop__rks.Foreignstudentssometimesdon’tunderstandthatcopyingfromotherpeople’spapersorfrombooksisconsideredwrongandtakenseriously.Hereitisimportanttoshowthatyouh__edoneyourownworkandaredisplayingyourownknowledge.Itismoreimportantthanhelpingyourfriendstopasswhomwethinkdonotdeservetopassunlesstheycanprovidetheirownanswers.GroupeffortgoesagainstthecompetitivegrainandAmericanstudentsdonotstudytogetheras__nyAsiansdo.__nyAsiansinthiscountryconsidertheirgroupstudyhabitsalargecontributortotheirschoolsuc__ss.
1.7_____EducationAftercomplainingabout__nyaspectsofAmericanlifea40-year-oldwo__nfromHongKongconcluded“ButwhereelsecouldsomeonemyagegobacktoschoolandgetadegreeinsocialworkHereyoucanchangeyourwholelifestartanewbusinessdowhatyoureallywanttodo.”Soatleasttothispersonschoolrequirementsweren’tinhibiting.Andtomillionsofothers_____educationisthepathtoanewcareerorifnottoanewcareertoanewoutlook.Schoolsgenerallyencouragetheolderpersonwhowantstostartanewandbesidesregularclassesscheduleeveningclassesinspecialprograms.Todaythereareso__nypeopleofretirementageincollegethatitisnolongerre__rkable.
1.8MoralRelativi__inAmericanImprovingAmericaneducationrequiresnotdoingnewthingsbutdoingandrememberingsomegoodoldthings.Atthetimeofournation’sfoundingTho__sJeffersonlistedtherequirementsforasoundeducationintheReportoftheCommissionersfortheUniversityofVirginia.Inthisland__rkstatementonAmericaneducationJeffersonwroteoftheimportan__ofeducationandwritingandofreadinghistoryandgeography.Buthealsoemphasizedtheneed“toinstructthe__ssofourcitizensinthesetheirrightsinterestsanddutiesasmenandcitizens.”Jeffersonbelievededucationshouldaimattheimprovementofbothone’s“morals”and“faculties”.ThathasbeenthedominantviewoftheaimsofAmericaneducationforovertwo__nturies.Butanumberofchangesmostofthemunsoundh__edivertedschoolsfromthesegreatpursuits.Andthestoryofthelossoftheschool’soriginalmoralmissionexplainsagreatdeal.Startingintheearlyseventies“valuesclarification”programsstartedturningupinschoolsalloverAmerica.Accordingtothisphilosophytheschoolswerenottotakepartintheirtime-honoredtaskoftran__ittingsoundmoralvalues;rathertheyweretoallowthechildto“clarify”hisownvalueswhich_____sincludingparentshadno“rights”tocriticize.The“valuesclarification”movementdidn’tclarifyvalues;itclarifiedwantsanddesires.Thisformofmoralrelativi__saidineffectthatnosetofvalueswasrightorwrong;everybodyhadanequalrighttohisownvalues;andallvaluesweresu__ectiverelativeandpersonal.Thisdestructiveviewtookholdwithavengean__.In1985TheYorkTimespublishedanarticlequotingNewYorkareaeducatorsinsl__ishdevotiontothisnewviewproclaiming“Theydeliberately__oidtryingto____studentswhatisethicallyrightandwrong.”Thearticletoldofonecounselingsessioninvolvingfifteenhighschooljuniorsandseniors.Inthecourseofthatsessionastudentconcludedthatafellowstudenthadbeenfoolishtoreturnonethousanddollarsshefoundinapurseatschool.Accordingtothearticlewhentheyoungstersaskedthecounselor’sopinion“Hetoldthemhebelievedthegirlhaddonetherightthingbutthatofcoursehewouldnottrytofor__hisvaluesonthem.‘IfIcomefromthepositionofwhatiswrong’heexplained‘thenI’mnottheircounselor.’”On__uponatimeacounselorofferedcounselorandheknewthatan_____doesnotformcharacterintheyoungbytakingastan__ofneutralitytowardquestionsofrightandwrongorbymerelyoffering“choi__s”or“options”.Inresponsetothebeliefthat_____sandeducatorsshouldteachchildrensoundmoralsonecanexpectfromsomequartersindignanto__ectionsI’veheardoneversionofitexpressedcountlesstimesovertheyears:“Whoareyoutosaywhat’simportant”or“Whosestandardsandjudgmentsdoweuse”ThecorrectresponseitseemstomeisiswereadytodoawaywithstandardsandjudgmentsIsanyonegoingtoargueseriouslythatalifeofcheatingandswindlingisasworthyasalifeofhonesthardworkIsanyonewiththeex__ptionofsomeliteratureprofessorsatoureliteuniversitiesgoingtoargueseriouslythein____ectualcorollarythata__rvelcomicbookisasgoodas__cbethUnlesswearewillingtoembra__someprettysillypositionwe’vegottoadmittheneedformoralandin____ectualstandards.Theproblemisthatsomepeopletendtoregardanyonewhowouldpronoun__adefinitivejudgmentasanunsophisticatedPhilistineoraclosed-minded“elitist”tryingtoimposehisviewoneverybodyelse.Thetruthoftherealworldisthatwithoutstandardsandjudgmentstherecanbenoprogress.Unlesswearepreparedtosayirrationalthings—thatnothingcanbeprovenmorevaluablethananythingelseorthateverythingisequallyworthless—wemustaskthenor__tivequestion.It__ycomeasasurprisetothosewhofellthattobe“progressive”istobevalue-neutral.Butas__tthewAmoldsaid“theworldisforwardedbyh__ingitsattentionfixedonthebestthings”andiftheworldcan’tdecidewhatthebestthingsareatleasttosomedegreethenitfollowsthatprogressandcharacterisintrouble.Weshouldn’tbereluctanttodeclarethatsomethingssomelivesbooksideasandvaluesarebetterthanothers.Itistheresponsibilityoftheschoolstoteachthesebetterthings.Atonetimeweweren’tsoreluctanttoteachthem.Inthemid-nineteenth__nturyadiversewidespreadgroupofcrusadersbegantoworkforthepublicsupportofwhatwasthencalledthe“commonschool”theforerunnerofthepublicschool.Theyweretobechargedwiththemissionofschoolfeltthatthenationcouldfulfillitsdestinyonlyifeverynewgenerationwastaughtthesevaluestogetherinacommoninstitution.Theleadersofthecommonschoolmovementwere__inlycitizenswhowereprominentintheircommunities—busines__enministerslocalcivicandgover__entofficials.Thesepeoplesawtheschoolsasupholdersofstandardsofindividualmoralityand__allincubatorsofcivicandpersonalvirtue;thefoundersofthepublicschoolshadfaiththatpubliceducationcouldteachgoodmoralandciviccharacterfromacommongroundofAmericanvalues.Butinthepastquarter__nturyorsosomeoftheso-calledexpertsbecameexpertsofvalueneutralityandmoraleducationwasincreasinglyleftintheirhands.Thecommonsenseviewofparentsandthepublic,thatschoolsshouldreinfor__ratherthanunderminethevaluesofhomefamilyandcountrywasincreasinglyrejected.Therearethosetodaystillthatclaimwearenowtoodiverseanationthatweconsistoftoo__nycompetingconvictionsandintereststoinstillcommonvalues.Theyarewrong.Ofcourseweareadiversepeople.Weh__ealwaysbeenadiversepeople.AndasMadisonwroteinFederalistNo.10thecompetingbalancinginterestsofadiversepeoplecanhelpensurethesurvivalofliberty.ButtherearevaluesthatallAmericancitizensshareandthatweshouldwantallAmericanstudentstoknowandto__ketheirown:honestyfairnessself-disciplinefidelitytotaskfriendsandfamilypersonalresponsibilityloveofcountryandbeliefintheprinciplesoflibertyequalityandthe_______topracti__one’sfaith.Theexplicitteachingofthesevaluesisthelegacyofthecommonschoolsanditisalegacytowhichwemustreturn.
1.9SchoolsShouldTeachValuesPeopleoftensaid“Yesweshouldteachthesevaluesbuthowdoweteachthem”thisquestiondeservesacandidresponseonethatisn’tgivenoftenenough.Itisbyexposingourchildrentogoodcharacterandinvitingitsimitationthatwewilltran__ittothemamoralfoundation.Thishappenswhenteachersandprincipalsbytheirwordsandactionsembodysoundconvictions.AsOxford’s__ryWarnockhaswritten“Youcannotteachmoralitywithoutbeingcommittedtomoralityyourself;andyoucannotbecommittedtomoralityyourselfwithoutholdingthatsomethingsarerightandotherswrong.”Thetheologian__rtinBuberwrotethattheeducatorisdistinguishedfromallotherinfluen__s“byhiswilltotakepartinthestampingofcharacterandbyhisconsciousnessthatherepresentsintheeyesofthegrowingpersona__rtainselectionofwhatistheselectionofwhatis‘right’ofwhatshouldbe.”ItisinthiswillBubersaysinthisclearstandingforsomethingthatthe“vocationasaneducatorfindsitsfundamentalexpression.”Thereisnoescapingthefactthatyoungpeopleneedasexampleprincipalsandteacherswhoknowthedifferen__betweenrightandwronggoodandbadandwhothemselvesexemplifyhighmoralpurpose.AsEducationSecretaryIvisitedaclassatWaterburyElementarySchoolinWaterburyVermontandaskedthestudents“Isthisagoodschool”Theyanswered“Yesthisisagoodschool.”Iaskedthem“Why”Amongotherthingsoneeight-year-oldsaid“TheprincipalMr.Riegel__kesgoodrulesandeverybodyobeysthem.”SoIsaid“Givemeanexample.”Andanotheranswered“Youcan’tclimbonthepipesinthebathroom.Wedon’tclimbonthepipesandtheprincipaldoesn’teither.”Thisexampleisprobablytoo______topleasealotofpeoplewhowantto__kethetopicofmoraleducationdifficultbutthereissomethingprofoundintheanswerofthosechildrensomethingeducationshouldpaymoreattentionto.Youcan’texpectchildrentotakemessagesaboutrulesormoralityseriouslyunlesstheysee_____stakingthoserulesseriouslyintheirday-to-dayaffairs.__rtainmustbesaid__rtainlimitslaydownand__rtainexamplesset.Thereisnootherway.Weshouldalsodoabetterjobatcurriculumselection.Theresearchshowsthatmost“valueseducation”exercisesandseparatecoursesin“moralreasoning”tendnottoaffectchildren’sbeh__ior;ifanythingthey__yle__echildrenmorallyadrift.WheretoturnIbelieveourliteratureandourhistoryarearichquarryofmoralliteracy.Weshouldminethatquarry.Childrenshouldh__eattheirdisposalastockofexamplesillustratingwhatwebelievetoberightandwronggoodandbad—examplesillustratingwhataremorallyrightandwrongcanindeedbeknownandthatthereisadifferen__.WhatkindofstorieshistoricaleventsandfamouslivesamItalkingaboutIfwewantourchildrentoknowabouthonestyweshouldteachthemaboutAbeLincolnwalkingthreemilestoreturnsix__ntsandconverselyaboutAesop’sshepherdboywhocriedwolfifwewantthemtoknowaboutcourageweshouldteachthemaboutJoanofArcHoratiusatthebridgeandHarrietTub__nandtheUndergroundRailroad.Ifwewantthemtoknowaboutpersisten__inthefa__ofadversitytheyshouldknowaboutthevoyagesofColumbusandthecharacterofWashingtonduringtheCivilWar.AndouryoungestshouldbetoldabouttheLittleEngineThatCould.IfwewantthemtoknowaboutrespectforthelawtheyshouldunderstandwhySocratestoldCrito:“NoImustsubmittothedecreeofAthens.”IfwewantourchildrentorespecttherightsofotherstheyshouldreadtheDeclarationofIndependen__theBillofRightstheGetty__urgAddressand__rtinLutherKingJr.’“LetterfromBirminghamjail.”FromtheBibletheyshouldknowaboutRuth’sloyaltytoNaomiJoseph’sforgivenessofhisbrothersJonathan’sfriendshipwithD__idtheGoodSa__ritan’skindnesstowardastrangerandD__id’sclevernessandcourageinfacingGoliath.Theseareonlyafewofthehundredsofexampleswecancallon.Andweneednotgetintoissueslikenuclearwarabortioncreationi__oreuthanasia.This__ycomeasadisappointmenttosomepeoplebutthefactisthatthefor__tionofcharacterinyoungpeopleiseducationallyataskdifferentfromandpriortothediscussionofthegreatdifficultcontroversiesoftheday.Firstthingscomefirst.Weshouldteachvaluesthesamewayweteachotherthings:onestepatatime.Weshouldnotusethefactthatthereare__nydifficultandcontroversialmoralquestionsasanargumentagainstbasicinstructioninthesu__ect.AfterallwedonotargueagainstteachingphysicsbecauselaserphysicsisdifficultagainstteachingAmericanhistorybecausethereareheateddisputesabouttheFounders’intent.Everyfieldhasitscomplexitiesanditscontroversies.Andeveryfieldhasitsbasicsitsfundamentals.Sotheyaretoowithformingcharacterandachievingmoralliteracy.Asanyparentknowsteachingcharacterisadifficulttask.Butitisacrucialtaskbecausewewantourchildrentobehealthyhappyandsuc__ssfulbutde__ntstrongandgood.Noneofthishappensauto__tically;thereisnogenetictran__issionofvirtue.Ittakestheconsciouscommittedeffortsof_____s.Ittakescarefulattention.
1.10CollegePressures__inlyItrytoremindthattheroadaheadisalongoneandthatitwillh__emoreunexpectedturnsthantheythink.Therewillbeplentyoftimetochangejobschangecareerschangewholeattitudesandapproaches.Theydonnotwanttohearsuchliberatingnews.Theywanta__p—rightnow–thattheycanfollowunswervinglytocareersecurityfinancialsecuritySocialSecurityandpresu__blyaprepaidgr__e.WhatIwishforallstudentsissomereleasefromtheclammygripofthefuture.Iwishthemachan__tos__oreachsegmentoftheireducationasanexperien__initselfandnotasagrimpreparationforthenextstep.Iwishthemtherighttoexperimenttotripandfalltolearnthatdefeatisasinstructiveasvictoryandisnottheendoftheworld.Mywishofcourseisnaïve.Oneofthenationalgodsveneratedinourmedia—themillion-dollarathletethewealthyexecutive—andglorifiedinourpraiseofpossessions.Inthepresen__ofsuchapotentstatereligiontheyoungaregrowingupold.Iseefourkindsofpressureworkingoncollegestudentstoday:economicpressureparentalpressurepeerpressureandself-indu__dpressure.Itiseasytolookaroundforvillains—toblamethecollegesforchargingtoomuchmoneytheprofessorsforassigningtoomuchworktheparentsforpushingtheirchildrentoofarandthestudentsfordrivingthemselvestoohard.Buttherearenovillains:onlyvictims.“Inthelate1960s.”onedeantoldme.“ThetypicalquestionthatIgotfromstudentswas‘Whyistheresomuchsufferingintheworld’or‘howIcan__keacontribution’Todayit’s‘DoyouthinkitwouldlookbetterforgettingintolawschoolifIdidadouble__jorinhistoryandpoliticalscien__orjust__joredinoneofthem’”__nyotherdeansconfirmedthispattern.Onesaid:“Theyaretryingtofindanedge—theintangiblesomethingthatwilllookbetteronpaperiftwostudentsareaboutequal.”Notetheemphasisonlookingbetter.Thetranscripthasbecomeasacreddocumentthepassporttosecurity.Howoneappearsonpaperismoreimportantthanhowoneappearsinperson.AisforAdmirableandBisforBorderlineeventhoughinYale’sofficialsystemofgradingAmeans“ex__llent”andBmeans“verygood.”Todaylookingverygoodisnolongergoodenoughespeciallyforstudentswhohopetogoontolawschoolormedicalschool.Theyknowthatentran__intothebetterschoolswillbeanentran__intothebetterlawfirmsandbettermedicalpracti__swheretheywill__kealotofmoney.Theyalsoknowthattheoddsareharsh.YaleLawSchoolforinstan____triculates170studentsfromanapplicantpoolof3700;Harvardenrolls550fromapoolof
7000.It’sallverywellforthoseofuswhowritelettersofrecommendationforourstudentstostressthequalitiesofhu__nitythatwill__kethemgoodlawyersordoctors.Andit’sni__tothinkthatadmissionoffi__rsarereadyreadingourlettersandlookingfortheextradimensionofcommitmentorcon__rn.Stillitwouldbehardforastudentnottovisualizetheseoffi__rsshufflingso__nytranscriptsstuddedwithAsthattheyregardaBaspositivelyshameful.Thepressureisalmostashe__yonstudentswhojustwanttograduateandgetajob.Longgonearethedaysofthe“gentle__n’sC.”whenstudentsjourneyedthroughcollegewitha__rtainrelaxationsamplingawidevarietyofcourses-musicartphilosophyclassicsanthropologypoetryreligion—thatwouldsendthemoutasliberallyeducatedmenandwomen.IfIwereanemployerIwouldratheremploygraduateswhoh__ethisrangeandcuriositythanthosewhonarrowlypursuedsafesu__ectsandhighgrades.Iknowcountlessstudentswhoseinquiringmindsexhilarateme.Iliketoheartheplayoftheirideas.IdonotknowiftheyaregettingAsorCsandIdonotcare.Ialsolikethemaspeople.Thecountryneedsthemandtheywillfindsatisfyingjobs.I____themtorelax.Theycannot.NorcanIblamethem.Theyliveinabrutaleconomy.Tuitionroomandboardatmostprivatecollegesnowcometoatleast$7000notcountingbooksandfees.Thismightseemtosuggestthatthecollegesaregettingrich.Buttheyareequallybatteredbyinflation.Tuitioncoversonly60per__ntofwhatitcoststoeducateastudentandordinarilythere__indercomesfromwhatcollegere__ivesinendowmentsgrantsandgifts.Nowthere__inderkeepsbeingswallowedbythecruelcosts—highereveryyear—ofjustopeningthedoors.Heatingoilisup.Insuran__isup.Postageisup.Health-premiumcostsareup.Everythingisup.Deficitsareup.WearewitnessinginAmericanthecreationofabrotherhoodofpaupers—collegesparentsandstudentsjoinedbythecommonbondofdebt.Todayitisnotunusualforastudentevenifheworksparttimeatcollegeandfulltimeduringthesummertoaccrue$5000inloansafterfouryears—loansthathemuststarttorepaywithinoneyearaftergraduation.Exhortedatcommen__menttogoforthintotheworldheisalreadybehindashegoesforth.HowcouldhenotfeelunderpressurethroughoutcollegetoprepareforthisdayofreckoningIh__eused“he”incidentallyonlyforbrevity.WomenatYaleareundernolesspressuretojustifytheirexpensiveeducationtothemselvestheirparentsandsociety.Infacttheyareprobablyundermorepressure.Foralthoughtheyle__ecollegesuperblyequippedtobringfreshleadershiptotraditionally__lejobssocietyhasnotyetcaughtupwiththisfact.Alongwitheconomicpressuregoesparentalpressure.Inevitablythetwoaredeeplyintertwined.Isee__nystudentstakingpre-medicalcourseswithjoylesstenacity.Theygoofftotheirlabsasiftheyweregoingtothedentist.ItsaddensmebecauseIknowteminothercornersoftheirlifeascheerfulpeople.“Doyouwanttomedicalschool”Iaskedthem.“Iguessso”theysaywithoutconvictionor“Notreally.”“Thenwhyareyougoing”“Wellmyparentswantmetobeadoctor.Theyarepayingallthismoneyand…”Poorstudentspoorparentstheyarecaughtinoneoftheoldestwebsofloveanddutyandguilt.Theparentsmeanwill;theyaretryingtosteertheirsonsanddraughtstowardasecurefuture.Butthesonsanddaughterwantto__jorinhistoryorclassicsorphilosophy—su__ectswithno“practical”value.Where’sthepayoffonthehu__nitiesIt’snoteasytopersuadesuchlovingparentsthatthehu__nitiesdoindeedpayoff.Thein____ectualfacultiesdevelopedbystudyingsu__ectslikehistoryandclassics—anabilitytosynthesizeandrelatetoweighcauseandeffecttoseeeventsinperspective—arejustthefacultiesthat__kecreativeleadersinbusinessoralmostanygeneralfield.Still__nyfatherswouldratherputtheirmoneyoncoursesthatpointtowardspecificprofession—coursesthatarepre-lawpre-medicalpre-businessorasIsometimeshearditput“pre-rich.”Butthepressureonstudentsissevere.Theyaretrulytorn.Onepartofthemfeelsobligedtofulfilltheirparents’expectations;afteralltheirparentsareolderandpresu__blywiser.Anotherpart____sthemthattheexpectationsthatarerightfortheirparentsarenotrightforthem.Iknowastudentwhowantstobeanartist.Sheisveryobviouslyanartistandwillbeagoodone—shehasalreadyhadseveralmodestlocalexhibits.Meanwhilesheisgrowingasawell-roundpersonandtakinghu__nisticsu__ectsthatwillenrichtheinnerresour__soutofwhichherartwillgrow.Butherfatherisstronglyopposed.Hethinksthatanartistisa“dumb”thingtobe.Thestudentvacillatesandtriestopleaseeverybody.Shekeepsupwithherartsomewhatfurtivelyandtakessomeofthe“dumb”coursesherfatherwantshertotake—atleasttheyaredumbcoursesforher.Sheisafreespiritonacampusoftensestudents—no__allachievementinit—andshedeservestofollowhermuse.Peerpressureandself-indu__dpressurearealsointertwinedandtheybeginalmostatthebeginningoffresh__nyear.“Ihadafresh__nstudentI’llcallLinda”onedeantoldme“whocameinandsaidshewasunderterriblepressurebecauseherroom__teBarbarawasmuchbrighterandstu___dallthetime.Icouldnot____herthatBarbarahadcomeintwohoursearliertosaythesamethingaboutLinda.”Thestoryisalmostfunny—ex__ptthatitisnot.Itissympto__ticofallthepressureputtogether.Wheneverystudentthinkseveryotherstudentisworkingharderanddoingbettertheonlysolutionistostudyharderstill.Iseestudentsgoingofftothelibraryeverynightafterdinnerandcomingbackwhenitclosesatmidnight.Iwishtheywouldsometimesforgetabouttheirpeersandgotoamovie.Iheartheclackingoftypewritersinthehoursbeforedawn.Iseethetensionintheireyeswhenexamsareapproachingandpapersaredue:“WillIgeteverythingdone”Probablytheywon’t.Theywillgetblocked.Theywillsleep.Theywilloversleep.Theywillbugout.Partoftheproblemisthattheyareexpectedtodo.Aprofessorwillassignfivepagepapers.Severalstudentswillstartwritingtenpagepaperstoimpresshim.Thenmorestudentswillwritetenpagepapersandafewwillraisetheantetofifteen.Pitythepoorstudentwhoisstilljustdoingtheassig__ent.“On__youh__etwentyorthirtyper__ntofthestudentpopulationdeliberatelyoverexerting”onedeanpointsout“It’sbadforeverybody.Whenateachergetsmoreandmoreeffortfromhisclassthestudentwhoisdoingnor__lworkcanbeper__ivedasnotdoingwell.Thetacticworkpsychologically.”Whycannottheprofessorjustcutbackandnotac__ptlongerpapersHecanandheprobablywill.Butbythenthetermwillbehalfoverandtheda__gedone.Gradefeverishighlycontagiousandnoteasilyreversed.Besidestheprofessor’s__incon__rniswithhiscourse.Heknowshisstudentsonlyinrelationtothecourseanddoesnotknowthattheyarealsooverexertingintheirothercourses.Norisitreallyhisbusiness.Hedidnotsignupfordealingwiththestudentasawholepersonandwithalltheemotionalbaggagethestudentbroughtalongfromhome.That’swhatdeans__sterschaplainsandpsychiatristsarefor.Tosomeextentthisisnothingnew:a__rtainnumberofprofessorsh__ealwaysbeenself-containedislandsofscholarshipandshynessmorecomfortablewithbooksthanwithpeople.Butthenewpauperi__haswidenedthegapstillfurtherforprofessorswhoactuallyliketospendtimewithstudentsdonoth__easmuchtimetospend.Theyarealsooverexerting.Iftheyareyoungtheyarebusytryingtopublishinordernottoperishhangingbytheirfigurenailsontoashrinkingprofession.Iftheyareoldandtenuredtheyareburiedunderthedutiesofadministeringdepartments—asdepartmentalchairmenormembersofcommittees—thath__ebeenthinnedoutbythebudgetaryaxe.Ulti__telyitwillbethestudents’ownbusinesstobreakthecirclesinwhichtheyaretrapped.Theyaretooyoungtobeprisonersoftheirparents’dreamsandtheirclas__ates’fears.Theymustbejoltedintobelievingintothemselvesasuniquemenandwomenwhoh__ethepowertoshapetheirownfuture.“Violen__isbeingdonetotheundergraduateexperien__”saysCarlosHortas.“Collegeshouldbeopen-ended:attheenditshouldopen__ny__nyroads.Insteadstudentsarechoosingtheirgoalinadvan__andtheirchoi__snarrowastheygoalong.It’salmostasiftheythinkthatthecountryhasbeencodifiedinthetypeofjobsthatexist-thatthey’vegottofitinto__rtainslots.Thereforefitintothebestpayingslot.”“Theyoughttotakechan__s.Nottakingchan__swillleadtolifeofcolorlessmediocrity.They’llbecomfortable.Butsomethinginthespiritwillbemissing.”Ih__epaintedtoodrabaportraitoftoday’sstudents__kingthemseemasolemnlot.Thatisonlyhalfoftheirstory;iftheyweresodrearyIwouldn’tsothoroughlyenjoytheircompany.Theotherhalfisthattheyareeasytolike.Theyarequicktolaughandtoofferfriendship.Theyarenotintroverts.TheyareusuallykindandaremoreconsiderateofoneanotherthananystudentgenerationIh__eknown.Noraretheysoobsessedwiththeirstu___sthatthey__oidsportsandextracurricularactivities.Onthecontrarytheyjuggletheircrowdedhourstoplayonavarietyofteamsperformwithmusicalanddra__ticgroupsandwriteforcampuspublications.Butthisinturnisonemorecauseofanxiety.Therearetoo__nychoi__s.Academicallytheyh__e1300coursestoselectfrom;outsideclasstheyh__etodecidehowmuchsparetimetheycanspareandhowtospendit.Thismeansthattheyengageinfewerextracurricularpursuitsthantheirprede__ssorsdid.Iftheywanttorowonthecrewandplayinthesymphonytheywilleliminateone;inthe‘60stheywouldh__edoneboth.Theyalsotendtochooseactivitiesthatareself-limiting.Dra__forinstan__isflourishinginalltwelveofYale’sresidentialcollegesasitneverhasbefore.Studentshurlthemselvesintotheseproductions—asactorsdirectorscarpentersandtechnicians—withadedicationtocreatethebestpossibleplayknowingthatthedaywillcomewhentherunwillendandtheycangetbacktotheirstu___s.Theyalsocannotaffordtobethewillingsl__eoforganizationsliketheYaleDailyNews.Lastspringattheone-hundredthanniversarybanquetofthatpaper—who’spastchairmenincludesuchon__andfuturekingsasPotterStewartKing__nBrewsterandWilliamF.BuckleyJr.—muchwas__deofthefactthattheeditorialstaffusedtobe__allandtotallycommittedandthat“newsies”routinelyworkedfiftyhoursaweek.Ineffecttheybelongedtoaclub;NewsiesishowtheydefinedthemselvesatYale.Today’sstudentswilloneortwoarticlesaweekwhenhecanandhedefineshimselfasastudent.I’veneverheardthewordNewsieex__ptatthebanquet.IfIh__edescribedthemodernundergraduatepri__rilyasadrivencreaturewhoislargelyignoringtheblithespiritinsidewhokeepstryingtocomeoutandplayit’sbecausethat’swherethecrunchisnotonlyatYalebutthroughoutAmericaneducation.It’swhyIthinkweshouldallbeworriedaboutthevaluesthatarenurturingagenerationsofearfulofriskandsogoal-obsessedatsuchanearlyage.I____studentsthatthereisnoone“right”waytogetahead—thateachofthemisadifferentpersonstartingfromadifferentpointandboundforadifferentdestination.I____neitherthemthatchangeisatonicandthatalltheslotsarenotcodifiednorthefrontiersclosed.Oneofmywaysof____ingthemistoinvitemenandwomenwhoh__eachievedsuc__ssoutsidetheacademicworldtocomeandtalkinfor__llywithmystudentsduringtheyear.Theyareheadsofcompaniesoradagencieseditorsof__gazinespoliticianspublicofficialstelevision__gnateslaborleadersbusinessexecutivesBroadwayproductsartistswriterseconomistsphotographersscientistshistorians—amixedbagofachievers.Iaskedthemtosayafewwordsabouthowtheygotstarted.Thestudentsassumethattheystartedintheirpresentprofessionandknewallalongthatitwaswhattheywantedtodo.Luckilyformemostofthemgotintotheirfieldbyacircuitousroutetotheirsurpriseafter__nydetours.Thestudentsarestartled.Theycanhardlycon__iveofacareerthatwasnotpre-planned.Theycanhardlyi__gineallowingthehandofGodorchan__tonudgethemdownsomeunforeseentrail.
1.11ToErrIsWrongInthesummerof1979BostonRedSoxfirstbase__nCarlYastrzemskibecamethefifteenthplayerinbaseballhistorytoreachthethreethousandhitplateaus.Thiseventdrewalotofmediaattentionandforaboutaweekpriortotheattai__entofthisgoalhundredsofreportscoveredYaz’severymore.Finallyonereporterasked“HeyYazaren’tyouafraidallofthisattentionwillgotoyourhead”Yastrzemskireplied“Ilookatthisway:inmycareerI’vebeenuptobatovertenthousandtimes.ThatmeansI’vebeenunsuc__ssfulattheplateoverseventhousandtimes.Thatfactalonekeepsmefromgettingaswollenhead.”Mostpeopleconsidersuc__ssandfailureasoppositesbuttheyareactuallybothproductsofthesamepro__ss.AsYazsuggestanactivitythatprodu__sahit__yalsoprodu__amiss.Itisthesamewithcreativethinking;thesameenergythatgeneratesgoodcreativeideasalsoprodu__serrors.__nypeoplehoweverarenotcomfortablewitherrors.Oureducationalsystembasedon“therightanswer”beliefcultivatesourthinkinginanothermoreconservativeway.Fromanearlyagewearetaughtthatrightanswersaregoodandincorrectanswersarebad.Thisvalueisdeeplyembeddedinthein__ntivesystemusedinmostschools:Rightover90%ofthetime=“A”Rightover80%ofthetime=“B~”Rightover70%ofthetime=“C~”Rightover60%ofthetime=“D~”Lessthan60%correctyoufail.Fromthiswelearntoberightasoftenaspossibleandtokeepourmistakestoaminimum.Welearninotherwordsthat“toerriswrong.
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11.1PlayingItSafeWiththiskindofattitudeyouaren’tgoingtobetakingtoo__nychan__s.Ifyoulearnthatfailingevenalitterpenalizesyoue.g.beingwrongonly15%ofthetimegarnersyouonlya“B”perfor__n__youlearnnotto__kemistakes.Andmoreimportantyoulearnnottoputyourselftosituationwhereyoumightfall.Thisleadstoconservativethoughtpatterndesignedto__oidthestig__oursocietyputson“failure”.Ih__eafriendwhore__ntlygraduatedfromcollegewitha__ster’sdegreeinJournali__.Forthelastsixmonthshehasbeentryingtofindajobbuttono__ail.Italkedwithheraboutsituationandrealizedthatherproblemisthatshedoesn’tknowhowtofail.Shewentthrougheighteenyearsofschoolingtotryanyapproacheswhereshemightfail.Shehasbeenconditionedtobelievethatfailureisbadinandofitselfratherthanapotentialstepping-stonetonewideas.Lookaround.How__nymiddle__nagershousewivesadministratorsteachersandotherpeopledoyouseewhoaretotryanythingnewbecauseofthisfailureMostofush__elearnednotto__kemistakesinpublic.Asaresultweremoveourselvesfrom__nylearningexperien__ex__ptforthoseoccurringinthemostprivateofcircumstan__s.
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11.2DifferentLogicFromapracticalpointofview“toerriswrong”__kessense.Oursurvivalintheeverydayworldrequiresustoperformthousandof__alltaskswithoutfailure.Thinkaboutit:youwouldn’tlastverylongifyouweretostepoutinfrontoftrafficorstickyourhandapotofboilingwater.Inadditionengineerswhosebridgescollapsestockbrokerswholosemoneyfortheirclientsandcopywriterswhoseadcampaignsdecreasesaleswon’tkeeptheirjobsverylong.Neverthelesstoogreatanadheren__tothebelief“toerriswrong”cangreatlyundermineyourattemptstogeneratenewideas.Ifyouaremorecon__rnedwithproducingrightanswersthangeneratingoriginalideasyou’llprobably__keuncriticaluseoftherulesformulaeandpro__duresusedtoobtaintheserightanswers.Bydoingthisyou’llby-passthegerminalphaseofthecreativepro__ssandthusspendlittertimetestingassumptionschallengingtherulesaskingwhat-ifquestionsorjustplayingaroundwiththeproblem.Allofthesetechniqueswillprodu__someincorrectanswersbutinthegerminalphaseerrorsareviewedasane__ssaryby-productofcreativethinking.AsYazwouldputit“ifyouwantthehitsbepreparedforthemisses.”That’sthewaythegameoflifegoes.
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11.3ErrorsasSteppingStonesWheneveranerrorpopsuptheusualresponseis“Jeezanotherscrewupwhatwentwrongthistime”thecreativethinkerontheotherhandwillrealizethepotentialvalueoferrorsandperhapssaysomethinglike“Wouldyoulookatthat!Wherecanitleadourthinking”andthenheorshewillgoontousetheerrorasasteppingstonetoanewidea.Asa__tteroffactthewholehistoryofdiscoveryisfiledwithpeoplewhousederroneousassumptionsandfailedideasasstepping-stonestonewideas.ColumbusthoughthewasfindingashorterroutetoIndia.JohannesKeplerstumbledontotheideaofinterplanetarygr__itybecauseofassumptionsthatwererightforthewrongreasons.AndTho__sEdisonknew1800waysnottobuildalightbulb.ThefollowingstoryabouttheautomotivegeniusCharlesKetteringexemplifiesthespiritofworkingthrougherroneousassumptionstogoodideas.In1912whentheautomobileindustrywasjustbeginningtogrowKetteringwasinterestedinimprovinggasolineengineefficiency.Theproblemhefa__dwas“knock”thephenomenoninwhichgasolinetakestoolongtoburninthecylinder-therebyreducingefficiency.Ketteringbegansearchingforwaystoeliminatethe“knock.”Hethoughttohim“HowcanIgetthegasolinetocombustinthecylinderatanearliertime”thekeycon__pthereis“early”.Searchingfor____ogoussituationshelookedaroundformodelsof“thingsthathappenearly.”Hethoughtofhistoricalmodelsphysicalmodelsandbiologicalmodels.Finallyherememberedaparticularplantthetrailingarbutuswhich“happensearly”i.e.itbloomsinthesnow“earlier”thanotherplants.Oneofthisplant’schiefcharacteristicsisits’redle__eswhichhelptheplantretainlightat__rtainw__elengths.Ketteringfiguredthatitmustbetheredcolorwhich__dethetrailingarbutusbloomearlier.NowcamethecriticalstepinKettering’schainofthought.Heaskedhimself“HowcanI__kethegasolinered”perhapsI’llputreddyeinthegasoline—__ybethat’ll__keitcombustearlier.”Helookedaroundhisworkshopandfoundthathedidn’th__eanyreddye.Buthedidhappentoh__esomeiodine—perhapsthatwoulddo.Headdedtheiodinetothegasolineandloandbeholdtheenginedidn’t“knock”.SeveraldayslaterKetteringwantedto__kesurethatitwastherednessoftheiodinewhichhadanfactsolvedhisproblem.Hegotsomereddyeandaddedittothegasoline.Nothinghappened!Ketteringthenrealizedthatitwasn’tthe“redness”whichhadsolvedthe“knock”problembut__rtainotherpropertiesofiodine.Inthiscaseanerrorhadproventobeastepping-stonetoabetteridea.Hadheknownthat“redness”alonewasnotthesolutionhe__ynoth__efoundhiswaytotheadditiveiniodine.
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11.4NegativeFeedbackErrorsserveanotherusefulpurpose:they____uswhentochangedirection.Whenthingsaregoing__oothlywegenerallydon’tthinkaboutthem.Toagreatextentthisisbecausewefunctionaccordingtotheprintingofnegativefeedback.Oftenitiswhenthingsorpeoplefailtodotheirjobthattheygetoverattention.Forexampleyouareprobablynotthinkingaboutyourkneecapsrightnow;that’sbecauseeverythingisfinewiththem.Thesamegoesforyourelbows:theyarealsoperformingtheirfunction—noproblematall.Butifyouweretobreakalegyouwouldimmediatelynoti__allofthethingsyoucouldnolongerdobutwhichyouusedtotakeforgranted.Negativefeedbackmeansthatthecurrentapproachisnotworkinganditisuptoyoutofigureoutanewone.Welearnbytrialanderrornotbytrialandrightness.Ifwedidthingscorrectlyeverytimewewouldneverh__etochangedirection—we’djustcontinuethecurrentcourseandendupwithmoreofthesame.ForexampleafterthesupertankerAmocoCadizbrokeupoffthecoastofBrittanyinthespringof1987therebypollutingthecoastwithhundredsofthousandsoftonsofoiltheoilindustryrethought__nyofitssafetystandardsregardingpetroleumtransport.ThesamethinghappenedaftertheaccidentattheThreeMileIslandnuclearreactorin1979—__nypro__duresandsafetystandardswerechanged.NeilGoldSchmidtformerSecretaryofTransportationhadthistosayabouttheBayAreaRapidTransitBART:it’sgottentoofashionablearoundthecountrytobeatuponBARTandnotgivecredittothevisionthatputthissysteminpla__.Weh__elearnedfromBARTaroundthecountry.ThelessonswereputtouseinWashingtoninAtlanticinBuffaloandothercitieswherewearebuilding__sstransitsystems.OneofthelessonsisnottobuildasystemlikeBART.Welearnbyourfailures.Aperson’serrorsarethewhacksthatleadhimtothinksomethingdifferent.
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11.5TryingNewThingsYourerrorrateinanyactivityisafunctionofyourfamiliaritywiththatactivity.Ifyouaredoingthingsthatareroutineandh__eahighlikelihoodofcorrectnessthenyouwillprobably__keeveryfewerrors.Butifyouaredoingthingsthath__enopre__den__inyourexperien__oraretryingdifferentapproachesthenyouwillbe__kingyourshareofmistakes.Innovators__ynotbatathousand–farfromit—buttheydogetnewideas.Thecreativedirectorofanadvertisingagencytoldmethatheisn’thappyunlessheisfailingatleasthalfofthetime.Asheputsit“Ifyouaregoingtobeoriginalyouaregoingtobewrongalot.”Oneofmyclientsthepresidentofafast-growingcomputercompany____shispeople:“We’reinnovators.We’redoingthingsnobodyhaseverdonebefore.Thereforewearegoingtobe__kingmistakes.Myadvi__toyou:__keyourmistakesbut__ketheminahurry.”Anotherclientadivision__nagerofahigh-technologycompanyaskedhispresidentofengineeringwhatper__ntageoftheirnewproductsshouldbesuc__ssfulinthe__rketpla__.Theanswerhere__ivedwas“about50%”.Thedivision__nagerreplied“That’stoohigh30%isabettertarget;otherwisewe’llbetooconservativeinourplanning.”Alongsimilarlinesinthebankingindustryitissaidthatifthecredit__nagerneverhastodefaultonanyofhisloansit’sasuresignhe’snotbeingaggressiveenoughinthe__rketpla__.Tho__sJ.WatsonthefounderofIBMhassimilarwords:“Thewaytosuc__edistodoubleyourfailurerate.”Thuserrorsattheveryleastareasignthatwearedivergingfromthe__inroadandtryingdifferentapproaches.
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11.6Nature’sErrorsNatureservesasagoodexampleofhowtrialanderrorcanbeusedto__kechanges.Everynowandthengeneticmutationsoccur—errorsingenereproduction.Mostofthetimethesemutationsh__eadeleteriouseffectonthespeciesandtheydropoutofthegenepool.Butoccasionallyamutationprovidesthespecieswithsomethingbeneficialandthatchangewillbepassedontofuturegenerations.Therichvarietyofallspeciesisduetothistrialanderrorpro__ss.Iftherehadbeenanymutationsfromthefirstamoebawherewouldwebenow
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11.7Sum__ryTherearepla__swhereerrorsareinappropriatebutthegerminalphaseofthecreativepro__ssisn’toneofthem.Errorsareasignthatyouaredivergingfromthewell-tr__eledpath.Ifyou’renotfailingeverynowandthenit’sasignyou’renotbeingveryinnovative.Tip#1:Ifyou__keanerroruseitasastepping-stonetoanewideayoumightnoth__eotherwisediscovered.Tip#2:Differentiatebetweenerrorsof“commission”andthoseof“omission.”Thelattercanbemorecostlythantheformer.Ifyou’renot__king__nyerrorsyoumightaskyourself“How__nyopportunitiesamImissingbynotbeingmoreaggressive”Tip#3:Strengthenyour“riskmuscle.”Everyonehasonebutyouh__etoexerciseitorelseitwillatrophy.__keitapointtotakeatleastoneriskeverytwenty-fourhours.Tip#4:Rememberthesetwobenefitsoffailure.Firstifyoudofailyoulearnwhatdoesn’twork;andsecondthefailuregivesyouanopportunitytotryanewapproach.
1.12ThePracticalityoftheLiberalArts__jorCurrenttrendsindicatethatbytheyear2000the__eragepersonwillchangecareersatleasttwi__duringalifetime.Howdoestheenteringcollegestudentprepareforcareermobilitywhichhasneverbeforebeenne__ssaryOurfathersdecidedwhattheywantedtodoinlifewhichwasveryoftenwhattheirfathershaddone-wenttocollegeorapprenti__dthemselvesandpursuedthesamecareeruntilretirement.Ourmothersassumedoneofthenurturingrolesinsocietyiftheyassumedaroleoutsideofthehomeatall.Thingsh__e__rtainlychanged.Nolongerislifeso______.Adaptabilityandlifelonglearningisnowthecornerstoneofsuc__ss.WhatdirectiondoesapersontaketoprepareforalifetimeofchangeTheone-degreethatprovidestrainingwhichneverbecomesobsoleteistheliberaldegree;itteachesyouhowtothink.Italsoteachesyouhowtoreadwriteandspeakin____igentlygetalongwithothersandcon__ptualizeproblems.Forthefirsttimeinseveraldecadestheliberalartsdegreeiscomingtotheforefrontoftheemploymentfield.Growingranksofcorporateexecutivesarelamentingthatcollegestudentsarespecializingtoomuchandtooearly.WhatcorporateAmericareallyneedsaccordingtochiefexecutiveoffi__rsof__jorcorporationsisstudentssoundlygroundedintheliberalarts—Englishespecially—whothencanpickupmorespecificbusinessortechnicalskillsonthejob.Fewstudentshoweverseemtobelisteningtothismessage.Today’sbestsellingcoursesoffereviden__thatstudentswanttotakecoursesthatprovidedirectjobrelatedskillsratherthanthemostbasicsurvivalskillsintheworkpla__:communicationandthinkingskills.Theywantcoursestheycanparlayintojobsandhighpayingonesatthat.__rtainlywecanunderstandthismentalitywhenweconsidertrendsindicatingthatthisgenerationwillbethefirstwhowillnotbeabletodobettereconomicallythantheirparents.Theydon’twanttole__eanythingtochan__.Historicallytheliberalartsdegreewasgoodinsuran__forapovertylevelexisten__.Studentsarelookingtohistorytoprovidesomeanswersitsimplycannotgive.Theywoulddowelltoexaminethepresent.Oneofthebigproblemsintheliberalartscommunityisthatwedonot__rketwhatweh__etooffer.StudentsveryoftenfailtoseethepracticalityofstudyingShakespeareaspreparationforacareerinthebusinesscommunity.Perhapssomeofush__elockedourselvesintheivorytoweralittletoolongextollingthevirtuesofaliberaleducationaspreparationforcitizenshipandlifeonlytotheneglectofitaspreparationforcareerorcareers.Educationforeducation’ssakeisnoblebutimpracticaltotoday’scollegestudentwhoisfacingacompetitiveandrapidlychangingjob__rket.Theywantanddeservetoknowhowtheircourseswillhelpthemgetajob.Weaseducatorsowethemsomeanswers;wemustbeaccountablenotonlyforlearningbutalsoforprovidinginfor__tionregardingthetransferabilityofclassroomskillsintotheworkpla__.InanattempttoprovideanswersweconductedaresearchprojectintheDallasmetropolislastyearassumingtheroleoftheliberalartsgraduateseekingemploymentinthefieldsofgover__entbankingbusinessandindustry.Usinginfor__tionalinter-viewingasourmethodofjobhuntingandobtainingdataweconductedtwenty-fiveinterviewswithadiversityofexecutiveoffi__rsrangingfrompersonneldirectorstothechair__noftheboardofanexclusivedepartmentstoreandthestategovernor.Wewishedtovalidatethroughpracticalandcurrentresearchthatnotonlydoestheliberalartsdegreeprovidethebestpreparationforalifetimeofchangebutitalsoprovidesaplethoraofemploymentopportunities.Wedonotclaimourresearchtobeallencompassingbutwedofeelitspracticalitywasrewarding.Wegathereddataastohowtheliberalarts__jorshouldpresenthimselfonpaperandinpersonwhereherbestchan__sforemploymentareandwhathecandotoaugmenttheliberalartsdegree.Wewereabletodrawseveralconclusionsastohowtheliberalartscommunitycouldbetterpreparestudentsforprofessionalmobility.
1.13TheLiberalArtsDegreeIs__rketableNinetyper__ntofthoseinterviewedrespondedtheywouldhireliberalarts__jorforanentry-levelpositionwhichcouldleadtotheexecutivesuiteifthepositionitselfwerenotexecutivelevel.Thechair__noftheboardofa__jordepartmentstoreinDallasrespondedtothequestion“Forwhatpositionwouldyouhirealiberalartsgraduate”withadirect“Anypositioninthecompany.”Whenaskedifabuyerwouldn’tneedtoh__especialskillshereplied“Tasteisacquiredorlearnedandtheliberalarts__jorcould__rtainlylearnthisskillonthejob.”Thisinterviewistypicaloftheresponses.
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13.1SkillsacquiredwithaLiberalArtsBackgroundAreMostDesiredbyEmployersWewerenotatallsurprisedtolearnthattheskillscitedasthemostdesirableinanemployeearethoseskillsacquiredfromaliberalartsbackground.Thecitedskillsarelistedbelowinorderofimportan__.
1.Oralcommunication
2.Writtencommunication
3.Interpersonal
4.____yticalthinking
5.Criticalthinking
6.LeadershipAlthoughtheseskillsarenotsolelyacquiredthroughthe__steryofanacademicdisciplinethedisciplineservesasavehiclefordevelopingorrefiningtheseskills.
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13.2LiberalArts__jorsCanEnhan__TheirCredentialsAdaptabilityandlifelonglearningarethecornerstonesofsuc__ssintoday’scomplexandrapidlychangingsociety.Nolongercanthepersonwhoissteepedinoneacademicdisciplinebutknowsnothingaboutanythingelsemeettoday’sde__nds.Basedonthedataweaccumulatedourrecommendationsfortheliberalarts__jorarethefollowing:
1.Abasicknowledgeofaccounting
1.Computerliteracy
2.Second__jorinabusinessfield
3.Multipleminors
4.Advan__ddegreesinanotherfieldThekeyhereisadaptabilityanddiversity.Contrarytowhatmostpeoplebelievethehigheraskilllevelanindividualcanclaimthemore__rketableheis.Aboutthoseindividualswhocomplainthattheyare“overeducated”wecanonlyassumethattheyare__rketingthemselvesonthewronglevel.“Overeducation”isatermwhosetimewillnotcomeintheforeseeablefuture.Theproblem__nyindividualswillfa__isnarrownessofeducationratherthan“overeducation”.UnlikeAristotlewhoisbelievedtoh__eknowneverythingtherewastoknowatthetimeheliveditisimpossibleforustodealwiththevoluminousamountsofinfor__tionwhichareprodu__ddaily.Thelifelonglearningwhichweh__ealludedtowillnotalwaysbeacquiredthroughthetraditionalsixteen-weekcollegecourse,weinthecommunitycollegeneedtoprovidea__orga__ordofopportunitiesforindividualswhowishtoincreasetheirmobilityandoptions.Thetimehascometorethinkwhateducationreallyisandhowitrelatestothefunctionofsociety.Perhapswhataliberaleducationdoesforanindividualwhoismoreimportantthananythingelseistopreparehimformorelearning.Theliberalartsbackgroundequipsonewiththinkingskills;andotherscoupledwiththedesiretolearnarethebestpreparationforcareerandlifethatanyofuscanpossess.
1.14TheVastEmptinessattheCoreofToday’sLiberalArtsEducationWiththisyear’sgraduationseasondrawingtoaclosewewon’th__etolistento__nymorecommen__mentspeakers.Usuallythey____thegraduatingseniorshowluckytheyweretospendfouryearsacquiringwisdom.AsagraduatingsenioratUCBerkeleyIh__easomewhatdifferentperspective—onethatwasn’theardoftenatthisyear’scommen__ment__remoniesbutthatcontainsagreatdealmoretruthaboutthestateofAmericanhighereducationtoday.Ih__edonerelativelywellacademicallyatBerkeley.EvensoIdon’tthinkI’vere__ivedatrueliberaleducation—atleastnotinthewaythatawell-educated__nofthe19th__nturywouldh__eunderstoodit.Backthenauniversitywassupposedtoprovidenourishmentformindbodyandsoul.Americancollegesstoppedcateringtothelattertoolongagowhen__ndatoryattendan__inchapelandatphysicaleducationclasseswasabolished.NowBerkeleyandotherleadingresearchuniversitiesh__eevenstoppedfeelingstudents’minds.WhatI’vemissedisaneducationthatintegratesphilosophyhistoryliteratureandtheotherhu__nitiesintoacoherentwhole.Partofthefaultismyown:IdidnotseekoutsomeclassesthatIshouldh__e.Butalargeshareoftheburdenlayswiththeuniversitywhichlacksacorecurriculum—forexample“GreatBooks”—thatcouldprovideageneraleducation.InsteadBerkeleylike__nyotherlargeuniversitiesoffersahostofoverlyspecializedcoursesthatseemtoh__elittleconnection.ThehistorydepartmentoffersaclassonTheodoreRoosevelt;Englishhasacourseonscien__fiction;philosophyoffersaclassonHegel.That’sit.Almostnocoursesattempttobridgethegulfbetweentheseareas.Thosethatshould—thatisintroductorycoursesaimedatfreshmenonly—offerthesamecontentastheupper-divisioncourses.Theyh__eanaddeddrawback:inac__ssibleprofessorsingiantauditoriumsbeforethousandsofboredstudentsteachthem.The__nresponsibleforthisdeplorablestateofaffairsisClarkKerrUCpresidentduringthe1960sandoneofthemostinfluentialfiguresofpost-WorldWaxIIhighereducation.Kerrdreamedthatthecollegewouldbecomeallthingstoallpeople—a“multiversity.”Insteaditwouldupservingalmosteverybodyinadequately.Nobodyissurewhattheuniversity’smissionisanymore:isittoeducateelitestudentsortocreateasocialmeltingpotortoconductgraduate-levelresearchPartisansofallthreeviewpointsh__ewagedintermittentbattlesontheBerkeleycampusfordecadesle__ingalltheplayersprofoundlydissatisfied.Undergraduatesarethereforedeniedtheopportunitytopursueacomprehensivecurriculum.Insteadtheyareleftlikeshoppersinagiantsuper__rkettowandertheaislespickingproductsatrandomneversurethattheirselectionswilladduptoanutritiousmeal.Laissezfaire__yworkintheeconomybutit’snowaytorunauniversity.ThislossofmissionhasalsoallowedaweirdcollectionofnutsandcrankstoassumeprominentpositionsatBerkeleyastheyh__eatotherleadingU.S.colleges.DeconstructionistsintheEnglishdepartmentteachthatwordsh__enointrinsicmeaning.RevisionistsinthehistorydepartmentteachthattheConstitutionwastheresultofacapitalistcabal.NewlymintedPhD’sintheethnic-stu___sfieldteachthatAmericahaswagedgenocidalwaragainstitsracialminoritiesfor__nturies.Instructorsinthe“Pea__andConflictStu___s”departmentteachstrategiesfornonviolentprotest.Asociologyprofessorinstructsstudentsonthe“plantationsystem”inprofessionalsportstoday.ThisiseducationThankfullyI’vebeenableto__oidmostoftheseprofessorswithanaxtogrind.Ih__e__nagedtostudyalmostexclusivelywithprofessorswhobelieveinold-fashionedacademicstandardsandtheimportan__ofWesterncivilization.Butmoststudentsdon’tfareaswell.Theluckyonesmerelymissthechan__tobeeducated.Theunluckyonesaxeindoctrinatedbyunscrupulouslecturers.It’ssafetosaythenthattherealityofcollegeeducationtodayisafaxcryfromthedreamylandoflearningandhigherthinkingdescribedbycommen__mentspeakers.Justaskanyre__ntgraduate.
1.15EducationasPhilosophyThereisanimmenseandjustifiedprideinwhatourcollegesh__edone.Atthesametimethereisagrowinguneasinessabouttheirproduct.Theyoungmenandwomenwhocarryawayourdegreesareaveryattractivelot—inlooksinbodilyfitnessinkindlinessenergycourageandbuoyancy.Butwhatisoftheirin____ectualequipmentThattooisinsomewaysadmirable;forinspitofPresidentLowell’sre__rkthattheuniversityshouldbearepositoryofgreatlearningsin__thefreshmenalwaysbringastockwiththemandtheseniorstakelittleawaythefactisthatourgraduatesh__eeverychan__tobewellinformedandusuallyareso.Yettheuneasinesspersists.Whenitbecomesarticulateittakestheformofwishesthattheseattractiveyoungproductsofourshadmorein____ectualdepthandfor__moreat-homenessintheworldofideasmoreofthefirmclearquietthoughtfulnessthatissopotentandsoneededaguardagainstbesettinghumbugandquackery.Thecomplaintcommonlyresolvesitselfintoabillofthreeparticulars.Firstgrantingthatourgraduatesknowagooddealtheirknowledgeliesaboutinfragmentsandnevergetsweldedtogetherintothestuffofatemperedandmobilemind.Secondlyouruniversitygraduatesh__ebeensobusyboringholesforthemselvesacquiringspecialknowledgeandskillsthatinlaterlifetheyh__eastonishinglylittleincommoninthewayofideasstandardsorprinciples.Thirdlyitisallegedthatthepasttwodecadesh__erevealedasingularwantofclarityaboutthegreatendsoflivingattachmenttowhichgivessignifican__anddirectiontoalife.Herearethreegr__echargesagainstAmericaneducationsandIwanttodiscussthembriefly.Myargumentwillbe______perhapstoo______.WhatIshallcontendisthatthereisagreatdealoftruthineachofthemandthattheremedyforeachisthesame.Itislargerinfusionofthephilosophichabitofmind.
1.16WhatTrueEducationShouldDoWhenmostpeoplethinkoftheword“education”theythinkofapupilasasortofani__tesausagecasing.Intothisemptycasingtheteachersaresupposedtostuff“education”.ButgenuineeducationasSocratesknewmorethantwothousandyearsagoisnotinsertingthestuffingofinfor__tionintoapersonbutratherelicitingknowledgefromhim;itisthedrawingoutofwhatisinthemind.“Themostimportantpartofeducation”on__wroteWilliamErnestHockingthedistinguishedHarvardphilosopher“isthisinstructionofa__ninwhathehasinsidehim.”AndasEdithHamiltonhasremindedusSocratesneversaid“Iknowlearnfromme.”Hesaidrather“LookoutyourownselvesandfindthesparkoftruththatGodhasputintoeveryheartandthatonlyyoucankindletoaflame.”Inthedialoguecalledthe“Meno”Socratestakesanignorantsl__eboywithoutadayofschoolingandprovestothea__zedobserversthattheboyreally“knows”geometry—becausetheprinciplesandaxiomsofgeometryarealreadyinhismindwaitingtobecalledout.So__nyofthediscussionsandcontroversiesaboutthecontentofeducationarefutileandinconclusivebecausetheyarecon__rnedwithwhatshould“gointo”thestudentratherthanwithwhatshouldbetakenoutandhowthiscanbestbedone.Thecollegestudentwhoon__saidtomeafteralecture“IspendsomuchtimestudyingthatIdon’th__eachan__tolearnanything”wassuccinctlyexpressinghisdissatisfactionwiththesausage-casingviewofeducation.Hewasbeingsostuffedwithmis__llaneousfactswithsuchanindigestible__ssof__terialthathehadnotimeandwasgivennoencouragementtodrawonhisownresour__stousehisownmindfor____yzingandsynthesizingandevaluatingthis__terial.Educationtoh__eanymeaningbeyondthepurposeofcreatingwellinformedstudentsmustelicitfromthepupilwhatislatentineveryhu__nbeing—therulesofreasontheinnerknowledgeofwhatisproperformentobeanddotheabilitytosifteviden__andcometoconclusionthatcangenerallybeassentedtobyallopenmindsandwormhearts.Pupilsaremorelikeoystersthansausages.Thejobofteachingisnottostuffthemandthensealthemupbuttohelpthemopenandrevealthericheswithin.Therearepearlsineachofusifonlyweknewhowtocultivatethemwithardorandpersisten__.
1.17TheFutureofUniversities“Canwespeakofthedeathoftheuniversity”anEnglishnewspaperre__ntlyasked.Anotherofferedthediagnosis:“Stillbreathing.”Notonlyatthisseminarhereandnowbutalsoallovertheworldthefutureoftheuniversitiesisnowbeingdiscussed.Thisisnotonlybecauseweareenteringanew__ntury.__nypeopleareaskingwhetherthetraditionalresearchuniversitiesinfacth__eanyfutureatall.Thisdoubtseems__inlytobeduetothedevelopmentofthenewtechnologythe__ssificationoftheuniversitiestheideasiflifelonglearningthegrowingcompetitionfromotherlearninginstitutionsand__ybealsobecauseofthestrongspecializationthatwenowareexperiencinginmostfieldsofresearch.__nyexpertspredictthedemiseofuniversitiesasweknowthemtodaywithacampus.IamanoptimistandIh__ebecomeevenmoreofanoptimisth__inglistenedtothespeakerstoday.Ibelieveinthe__gicofthecampus!Ibelievethattheuniversitieswillbeabletoenjoyaverybrightfutureasin____ectualpower__ntersinaworldinwhichsocietyiscallingoutincreasinglyloudlyformoreknowledge.Butifwearetocontinuetoliveasin____ectualpower__nterstheuniversitiescannotsitpassivelylettingdevelopmentstaketheircourse.Wemustknowwhatsortofuniversitywewantinthefuture.__nybattlesh__ebeenlostbecauseofthelackofanygoal.Wemustalsoh__eastrategyandapolicyforhowwearetoachieveourvision.Thismeansthattheuniversitiesmustactivelyandrelatetothegreatchallengeswearenowbeingconfrontedwithandwemustdevelopourabilityandwillforrenewal.Yetwemustdothisatthesametimeaswestandbythefundamentalvaluesthat__keusauniversity:thatisourindependen__.Iseeitasoneofthemostimportanttasksforauniversitypresidenttoworkforthegreatestpossiblespiritofcommunityintheuniversityandfortheuniversitytobeanintegratedinstitutionandnotsimplyanumberoffacultiesordepartmentslinkedtogetherinsomekindoffor__lorganizationorstrategicallian__.Onlythencanwedefendtheuseofthename“university”.Iwouldliketoconcludebysayingafewwordsaboutinternationalsolidarity.Thequalitygapbetweenacademicinstitutionsindifferentpartsoftheworldshouldbeacon__rnfortheuniversitiesinthedevelopedcountries.Theyshouldassumealeadingroleinthedisseminationofknowledgeandinpromotingthedevelopmentofuniversitiesworldwide.Thisisa__tterofsolidaritytowardssisterinstitutions.IagreewithUNESCOwhentheyunderlinethatmemberoftheworld’sacademiccommunityshouldbecon__rnednotonlyaboutthequalityoftheirowninstitutionalsettingbutalsoaboutthequalityofresearcheverywhere.Mostuniversitiesinthewesternword—atleastthepublicuniversities—arenowexperiencingaseriouslackoffundsandtheinstitutionalsolidaritymustnottakeaformthatleadstoadrainingofstrengthandvitalityoftheuniversities.Therearehowever__nywaysofshowingsolidaritywithoutusingtoomuchoftheuniversitiesownfunding.Oneofthetasksoftheuniversitiesistokeepremindingtheauthoritiesoftheimportan__ofspendingmoneyonresearchandeducationindevelopingcountries.Theuniversitiesthemselvesmustworkincloseco-operationwiththedevelopment-aidagencieswheretheGover__entprovidesmostoftheeconomicresour__sandtheuniversitiesprovidethecompeten__.Itisalsopossibletoshareknowledgebygivingeasierac__sstore__ntfindingsto__kepossibleacademicmobilityandincreasedtechniqueco-operationamongregionalgroupings.Variousacademicco-operationprograms__yprotectagainstbraindrainwhichisnowaseriousthreatin__nycountries.Onlythroughthedevelopmentoflocalskillandcompeten__throughincreasednumbersofprovidersandusersofknowledgecanthedevelopingcountriesbridgethegapseparatingthemfromdevelopedcountries.Andthebridgingofthisgapwillleadtosocietiesthatarefreermorepea__fulandmoreegalitarian.Theuniversitiesh__ethecompeten__thepossibilityandthereforealsoadutytopromotethe“in____ectualandmoralsolidarityof__nkind”asstatedintheUNESCO’sconstitution.
1.18TeachingandLearning:Strategiesforthe21st__nturyExaminingthesituationinthehigherlearningtodaywerealizethatsin__theendofthelastWorldWarthereh__ebeenbasicchangesintherelationsofthestateandtheuniversityin__nycountries.Thesechangesareconnectedwithdra__ticincreaseinthenumberofstudentsandnotlesswiththeincreaseinthecostofresearch.Thesocialconsequen__softhesepro__ssare:aTheprofoundchangeinthestructureofthesocietyduetothegrownper__ntageofuniversitygraduates;bTheriskofin____ectualunemploymentofthispartofsociety;cTherelativedevaluationofothervocationsandthedecreaseinthenumberofyoungpeoplewhoselect__nualvocations;andastheresultdApotentialsociallackofequilibriumandtheinabilityofthesocietytosupporttheuniversity.Butletmenowcometomorepractical__ttersandenumeratethe__infactorsthatdeterminethedevelopmentofeducationontheveryeveofthe21st__ntury.
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18.1Thedevelopmentofinfor__tiontechnologies.Throughouttheworldinfor__tionandtelecommunicationtechnologiesarebringingaboutanewindustrialrevolutionwhichlookstobeasimportantandradicalasthoserevolutionswhichpre__dedit.Thebenefitsthatcomealongwiththedevelopmentofnewtechnologiesareobviousandh__ebeendiscussedquitealot.Iwouldliketodrawyourattentiontothosesidesofintroductionofinfor__tiontechnologieswhichcanposenewproblemsforeducation.The__ailabilityofinfor__tionontheINTERNETforexamplewidensthepossibilitiesofinfor__leducationimmensely.Itcouldleadtoknowledgeof“thelowestcommondenominator”inwhichpeopleloosetheirhistoricalgeographicalandculturalbearings.Newinfor__tiontechnologiesarewidelyintrodu__dinschoolsanduniversitiesandallowdevelopingdistan__educationprogramswithoutboundaries.Howevermethodsofteachingandlearningthroughelectronicmeansarestilltobedeveloped.In__nycaseslecturestrytousethetraditionalmethodologyofteachingwhiledealingwithnewmediaandfail.
1.
18.2Internationalizationisconnectedbothwithpoliticalsituationandwiththedevelopmentoftechnologies.Nowadaysourworldisbecoming__allerand__allerandturnsintoa“globalvillage.”Internationalacademiccooperationisanex__llentbasisfornation-widecooperationandoneofthekeyfactorsforsustainabledevelopment.Itisabsolutelyvitalfortechnicalharmonizationenviro__entaleducationalprogramsgrowthofstudentmobilityandactivizationofregionalcooperation.Onecanbequitesurethatthesepro__sseswillcontinueanddeepeninthenext__ntury.Againthereareanumberofissueswhichneedseriousconsideration.TowhatextentshouldwestandardizeeducationalprogramsHowmuchriskdoesinternationalizationcontainfornationalidentityHowtocreateaglobalsystemofacademicrecognitionandisitreallyne__ssary
1.19Universitieschangingtomeettheneedsofthe21st__nturyKeepingwiththethemeofthissessionIwilltalkabouttheroleoftheUniversityforthe21st__ntury.Ih__echosennotonebutsevendifferentroleswhichwillbeimportantforuniversitiesinthe21st__ntury:LearningCommunityRoleResearchandDiscoveryRoleAssistinginPre-collegeEducationRolePartnershipswithCorporationsRoleConvenerRoleWorldRoleSocietalRoleThelearningcommunityreflectsashiftawayfromthetypicallectureapproachwheretheprofessorprofessesi.e.impartsknowledgetothestudentandthestudentsimplytakesitdownandtakesitin.thenewemphasiswillbelearninginadditiontothelecturethroughstudentinitiativeinsettingtheprogramacquiringknowledgethroughtheInternetasneededcollaboratingwithpeersinspecialprojectsexperientiallearningthroughinternshipsstudyabroadand__nyotherout-of-classroomexperien__s.Recordsoflearningexperien____ybethroughportfolioreflectingthevarietyofexperien__sratherthansimplytranscriptsshowingcoursestakenandgrades.Inadditionthelearningcommunitymeansmorethanjustthestudentexperien__.Itincludesallpartsallfunctionsallpersonnelh__inganinvolvementinlearningthusthelearningcommunity.Theresearchrolewillcontinuetobeakeyfunctionintheresearchuniversitybuttherewillcontinuetobeashiftinemphasisawayfromsingleinvestigatorworkingonaparticularandnarrowareatowardmulti-disciplinaryteamsworkingonproblemsdrivenbysocietalneed.Severalfactorswillcontinuetofor__thisdirectionsuchaslimitedspa__andfacilitiesinourinstitutionslimitedbudgetsfordoingresearchincludinghighcostsofduplicatinglaboratoriesforeachnewfacultyinvestigatorandincreasingexpectationsbytheseprovidingthefundingtoseesubstantiveandusefulresults.There__iningfiverolesaddresstheoutreachfunction.Thiswillbetheareaofmostsignificantchangeinthe21st__ntury.Firsttheuniversitywilltakeonanevenlargerroleinassistingpre-collegeeducationinpreparingstudentsforstudyandwork.Suc__ssoncollegeisgreatlyimpactedbystudentpreparation.Thustheuniversitywillneedtotakemoreresponsibilityinguidingthepro__ssincollegepreparation.Partnershipswithcorporationsandbusinesseswillbecomeagreaterpartofuniversityinvolvement.The21st__nturywillseeexpansionofpartnershipsofthistypeparticularlywithresearchuniversities.Thesewilltakeondifferentforms.Theywillinvolvecollaborationforeducationofanolderworkfor__collaborationfororganizationalandpro__ssimprovementinbothtypesoforganizationsagreementsforspecialconsiderationinstudentrecruitmentandinternshipsandemploymentandfundingbetweenthepartners.Eachwillneedtoundergosomemodificationofcultureasthesechangesoccur.Theconvenerroleinvolvesbringingpeopletocampustoaddress__rtainimportantissues.Itmeansidentifyingexpertsaroundtheworldtojoinwiththoseoncampustoseekunderstandingandactionsforchange.Thisconferen__sponsoredbyPekingUniversityisanexampleoftheconvenerfunction.Italsoinvolvesbringingpeopletogethertolearnaboutmodernapproachestothelatestandimportantissuesin__nydifferentfields.Thisrolehasbeenservedfor__nyyearsinagricultureeducationandengineering.Othersareemergingandthefuturewillh__euniversitiesservingevenbroaderrolesasconvenerofexpertsin__nydifferentareas.Theworldroleforuniversitiesisanotherthatisevolvingrapidly.Itisbeingdrivenbyincreasingeaseofcommunicationworldwidetheconnectivityofeconomiesofcountriesaroundtheworldtheopeningupofgreateropportunitiesfortradeandtheincreasingprevalen__ofmultinationalcorporations.Finallythesocietalrolewillbetheareaofgreatestchangeaswemoveintothe21st__ntury.Theuniversitywilldirectmoreofitsfinancialresour__sandfacultyexpertisetowardcriticalneedsofsocietytowardconveningfacultyindividualsindifferentcollegesanddepartmentstocollaboratein__rtainfieldsofresearchanddevelopment.Thiswilltaketimetoevolveanditwillrequiresomeshiftincultureoftheuniversity.Buttheexternalfor__sbearingonuniversitieswilldrivechangeinemphasisfromfocusingonstatusasdeterminedbyuniversitypeerstowardgreateremphasisonrelevan__ofworkandaccomplishment.Whilethechangestakingpla__involvingmovingtowardmoreemphasisonneedsofsocietyaregenerallypositivetherearecon__rnsaboutsomedirectionsthatcouldtakepla__.Forexampleuniversitieswillneedto__intaintheirindependen__insettingagendasanddirections.Itwillbeimportanttoretainindependen__toworkmoreeffectivelyinaninterdependentsociety.Secondlyuniversitieswillneedto__oidex__ssivepoliticalandpartisaninfluen__ondecision-__kingintendedtobenefitspecialinterests.Andthirdlywewillwanttoretainabalan__droleofthefacultyinthedecisionpro__ssofuniversitygovernan__.Insum__rythecollegesanduniversitiesofthe21st__nturywillneedtobeabletoworkeffectivelyinaninterdependentsocietyh__ingaworldwidescope.Theywillbelessinwardlookingandmoreconnectedtoissuesoutsidethatinvolveproblemsplaguingsociety.Theywillbemorecollaborativewithcorporationsotheruniversitiesandamongfacultyacrossunitswithintheinstitution.Therewillbemoreemphasisonthestudent’sexperien__inlearningseekingknowledgethroughdifferentmethodsinadditiontothelectureanddevelopingskillsthroughexperien__.Finallytheuniversitywillbemoredependentontechnologyinthestudentslearningexperien__aswellastheoperationofallaspectsoftheactivitieswithintheinstitution.IbelievetheUniversityofthe21st__nturywillseestudentstakingclassestogetherandworkingoncollaborativeprojectsinuniversitiesthat__ybehundredsandpossiblythousandsofmilesapart.
1.20EducationandTrainingTounderstandthenatureoftheliberalcollegeanditsfunctioninoursocietyitisimportanttounderstandthedifferen__betweeneducationandtraining.Trainingisintendedpri__rilyfortheservi__ofsociety;educationispri__rilyfortheindividual.Societyneedsdoctorslawyersengineersteacherstoperformspecifictasksne__ssarytoitsoperationjustasitneedsofsocietysothattheworkoftheworld__ycontinue.Andtheseneedsourtraining__ntertheprofessionalandtradeschoolsfill.Butalthougheducationisfortheimprovementoftheindividualitalsoservessocietybyprovidingale__eningofmenofunderstandingofper__ptionandwisdom.Theyareourin____ectualleadersthecriticsofourculturethedefendersofourfreetraditionsandtheinstigatorsofourprogress.Theyservesocietybyexaminingitsfunctionappraisingitsneedsandcriticizingitsdirection.They__ybeearningtheirlivingsbypracticingoneoftheprofessionsorinpursuingatradeorbyengaginginbusinessenterprise.They__yberichorpoor.They__yoccupypositionofpowerandprestigeorthey__ybeengagedinsomehumbleemployment.Withoutthemsocietyeitherdisintegratesorelsebecomesananthill.Thedifferen__betweenthetwotypesofstudyislikethedifferen__betweenthedisciplineandexerciseinaprofessionalbaseballtrainingcampandthatofaYgym.Intheonetherecruitistrainingtobecomeaprofessionalbaseballplayerwhowill__kealivingandservesocietybyplayingbaseball;intheotherheistrainingonlytoimprovehisownbodyandmusculature.Thetrainingatthebaseballcampisallrelevant.Therecruit__yspendhourspracticinghowtoslideintosecondbasenotbecauseitisaparticularlyusefulformofcalisthenicsbutbecauseitisrelevanttothegame.Theexercisewouldstopiftheruleswerechangedsothatslidingtoabasewas__deillegal.Similarlythecandidateforthepitchingstaffspendsalotoftimethrowingabaseballnotbecauseitwillimprovehisphysique—it__yh__equitetheoppositeeffect—butbecausepitchingistobehisprincipalfunctionontheteam.AttheYgymexercisesh__enosuchrelevan__.Theintentionistostrengthenthebodyingeneralandwhenthememberssitdownonthefloorwiththeirlegsoutstretchedandpracti__touchingtheirfingerstotheirtoesitisnotbecausetheyhopetobecomegalleysl__esperhapstheonlyoccupationwherethatparticularexercisewouldberelevant.Ingeneralrelevancyisafa__toftrainingratherthanofeducation.WhatistaughtatlawschoolisthepresentlawofthelandnottheNapoleonicCodeoreventhearchaiclawsthath__ebeenscratchedfromthestatutebooks.Andtheplumberandthecarpenterandtheelectricianandthe__sonlearnonlywhatisrelevanttothepracti__oftheirrespectivetradesinthisdaywiththetoolsand__terialsthatarepresently__ailableandthatconformtothebuildingcode.Intheliberalartscollegeontheotherhandthestudentisencouragedtoexplorenewfieldsandoldfieldstowanderdownthebypathsofknowledge.Theretheteachingiscon__rnedwith__jorprinciplesanditspurposeistochangethestudentto__kehimsomethingdifferentfromwhathewasbeforejustasthepurposeoftheYgymisto__keafat__nintoathinoneorastrongoneoutofaweakone.Clearlythetwotypesoflearningoverlap.Justasthebaseballrecruitgetsridofex__ssweightandtightenshismusclesatthebaseballcampandtherebyprofitsevenifhedoesnot__ketheteamsothelawstudentsharpenshismindandbroadenshisunderstandingevenifhesubsequentlyfailsthebarexamandgoesonto__kehislivinginanentirelydifferentkindofwork.Hisstudyoflawgiveshimanunderstandingoftherulesunderwhichoursocietyfunctionsandhispracti__insolvinglegalproblemsgiveshimanunderstandingoffinedistinctions.OntheotherhandtheYmemberwhoseoriginalreasonforjoining__yh__ebeensolelytogethiminshape__ygetcaughtupintheinstitution’sbaseballprogramandfindthathisskillhasdevelopedtothepointwherehecanplaythegameprofessionally.Similarlythestudentwhoundertakesacourseofstudymerelybecauseitinterestshimandhewantstoknowmoreaboutit__yfindthatithascommercialvalue.Hehasstu___daforeignlanguageandliteratureinordertounderstandthesocietythatprodu__ditandthenhe__yfindthathisspecialknowledgeenableshimtogetajobasatranslator.Orhe__yfindthatwhilehisknowledgeofchemistryisnotofprofessionalcaliberitisstillsufficienttogivehimpreferen__inaparticularjoboversomeonewholackseventhatmodicumofknowledgeofthesu__ect.Buttheseareaccidentalandincidental.Ingeneral__rtaincoursesofstudyarefortheservi__ofsocietyandothercoursesareforself-improvement.Inthehierarchyofoureducationalsystemtheformerarethefunctionofourprofessionalschoolsandthelatterarethefunctionofthecollegeofliberalarts.
1.21KnowledgeandWisdomMostpeoplewouldagreethatalthoughouragefarsurpassesallpreviousagesinknowledgetherehasbeennocorrelativeincreaseinwisdom.Butagreement__asesassoonasweattempttodefine“wisdom”andconsidermeansofpromotingit.Iwanttoaskfirstwhatwisdomisandthenwhatcanbedonetoteachit.ThereareIthinkseveralfactorsthatcontributetowisdom.OftheseIshouldputfirstasenseofproportion:thecapacitytotakeaccountofallimportantfactorsinproblemsandtoattachtoeachitsdueweight.Thishasbecomemoredifficultthanitusedtobeowingtotheextentandcomplexityofthespecializedknowledgerequiredofvariouskindsoftechnicians.Supposeforexamplethatyouareengagedinresearchinscientificmedicine.Theworkisdifficultandislikelytoabsorbthewholeofyourin____ectualenergy.Youh__enottimetoconsidertheeffectwhichyourdiscoveriesorinventions__yh__eoutsidethefieldofmedicine.Yousuc__edletussayasmodernmedicinehassuc__edinenormouslyloweringtheinfantdeathratenotonlyinEuropeandAmericabutalsoinAsiaandAfrica.Thishastheentirelyunintendedresultof__kingthefoodsupplyinadequateandloweringthestandardoflifeinthemostpopulouspartsoftheworld.Totakeanevenmorespectacularexamplewhichisineverybody’smindatthepresenttime:Youstudythecompositionoftheatomfromadisinteresteddesireforknowledgeandincidentallypla__inthehandsofpowerfullunaticsthemeansofdestroyingthehu__nra__Insuchwaysthepursuitofknowledge__ybecomeharmfulunlessitiscombinedwithwisdomandwisdominthesenseofcomprehensivevisionisnotne__ssarilypresentinspecialistsinthepursuitofknowledge.Comprehensivenessalonehoweverisnotenoughtoconstitutewisdom.Theremustbealsoa__rtainawarenessoftheendsofhu__nlife.This__ybeillustratedbythestudyofhistory.__nyeminenthistoriansh__edonemoreharmthangoodbecausetheyviewedfactsthroughthedistortingmediumoftheirownpassions.Hegelhadaphilosophyofhistorywhichdidnotsufferfromanylackofcomprehensivenesssin__itstartedfromtheearliesttimesandcontinuedintoanindefinitefuture.ButthechieflessonofhistorywhichhesoughttoinculcatewasthatfromtheyearA.D.400downtohisowntimeGermanyhadbeenthemostimportantnationandthestandardbearerofprogressintheworld.Perhapsonecouldstretchthecomprehensivenessthatconstituteswisdomtoincludenotonlyin____ectbutalsofeeling.Itisbynomeansuncommontofindmenwhoseknowledgeiswidebutwhosefeelingsarenarrow.SuchmenlackwhatIamcallingwisdom.Itisnotonlyinpublicwaysbutinprivatelifeequallythatwisdomisneed.Itisneededinthechoi__ofendstobepursuedandine__ncipationfrompersonalprejudi__.Evenanendwhichitwouldbenobletopursueifitwereattainable__ybepursuedunwiselyifitisinherentlyimpossibleofachievement.__nymeninpastagesdevotedtheirlivestoasearchforthephilosopher’sstoneandtheelixiroflife.Nodoubtiftheycouldh__efoundthemtheywouldh__econferredgreatbenefitsupon__nkindbutasitwastheirliveswerewasted.Todes__ndtolessheroic__ttersconsiderthecaseoftwomenMr.AandMr.Bwhohateeachotherandthroughmutualhatredbringeachothertodestruction.SupposeyougotoMr.Aandsay“WhydoyouhateMr.B”HewillnodoubtgiveyouanappallinglistofMr.B’svi__spartlytruepartlyfalse.AndnowsupposeyougotoMr.B.HewillgiveyouanexactlysimilarlistofMr.A’svi__swithanequaladmixtureiftruthandfalsehood.SupposeyounowcomebacktoMr.Aandsay“YouwillbesurprisedtolearnthatMr.Bsaysthesamethingsaboutyouasyousayabouthim”andyougotoMr.Band__keasimilarspeech.Thefirsteffectnodoubtwillbetoincreasetheirmutualhatredsin__eachwillbesohorrifiedbytheother’sinjusti__.Butperhapsifyouh__esufficientpatien__andsufficientpersuasivenessyou__ysuc__edinconvincingeachthattheotherhasonlythenor__lshareofhu__nwickednessandthattheire__ityisharmfultoboth.Ifyoucandothisyouwillh__einstilledsomefragmentofwisdom.Ithinktheessen__ofwisdomise__ncipationasfaraspossiblefromthetyrannyofthehereandthenow.Wecannothelptheegoi__ofoursenses.Sightandsoundandtouchareboundupwithourownbo___sandcannotbe__deimpersonal.Ouremotionsstartsimilarlytitanourselves.Aninfantfeelshungerordiscomfortandisunaffectedex__ptbyhisownphysicalcondition.Graduallywiththeyearshishorizonwidensandinproportionashisthoughtsandfeelingsbecomelesspersonalandlesscon__rnedwithhisownphysicalstatesheachievesgrowingwisdom.Thisisofcoursea__tterofdegree.Noonecanviewtheworldwithcompleteimpartiality;andifanyonecouldhewouldhardlybeabletore__inalive.Butitispossibleto__keacontinualapproachtowardsimpartialityontheonehandbyknowingthingssomewhatremoteintimeorspa__andontheotherhandbygivingtosuchthingstheirdueweightinourfeelings.Itisthisapproachtowardsimpartialitythatconstitutesgrowthinwisdom.CanwisdominthissensebetaughtAndifitcanshouldtheteachingofitbeoneoftheaimsofeducationIshouldanswerboththesequestionsintheaffir__tive.WearetoldonSundaysthatweshouldloveournei___orasourselves.Ontheothersixdaysoftheweekweareexhortedtohatehim.You__ysaythatthisisnonsensesin__itisnotournei___orwhomweareexhortedtohate.Butyouwillrememberthatthepre__ptwasexemplifiedbysayingthattheSa__ritanwasournei___or.Wenolongerh__eanywishtohateSa__ritansandsoweareapttomitethepointoftheparable.IfyouwanttogetitspointyoushouldsubstituteCommunistoranti-Communistasthecase__ybeforSa__ritan.Itmightbeo__ectedthatitisrighttohatethosewhodoharm.Idonotthinkso.Ifyouhatehimitisonlytoolikelythatyouwillbecomeequallyharmful;anditisveryunlikelythatyouwillindu__themtoabandontheirevilways.Hatredofevilisitselfakindofbondagetoevil.ThewayoutisthroughunderstandingnotenoughhateIamnotadvocatingnon-resistan__.ButIamstudyingthatresistan__ifitistobeeffectiveinpreventingthespreadofevilshouldbecombinedwiththegreatestdegreeofunderstandingandthe__allestdegreeoffor__thatiscompatiblewiththesurvivalofthegoodthingsthatwewishtopreserve.ItiscommonlyurgedthatapointofviewsuchasIh__ebeenadvocatingisincompatiblewithvigorinaction.Idonotthinkhistorybearsoutthisview.QueenElizabeth1inEnglandandHenryIVinFrancelivedinaworldwherealmosteverybodywasfanaticaleitherontheProtestantorontheCatholicside.Bothre__inedfreefromtheerrorsoftheirtimeandbothbyre__iningfreewerebenefi__ntand__rtainlynotineffective.AbrahamLincolnconductedagreatwarwithouteverdepartingfromwhatIh__ebeencallingwisdom.Ih__esaidthatinsomedegreewisdomcanbetaught.Ithinkthatthisteachingshouldh__ealargerin____ectualelementthanhasbeencusto__ryinwhathasbeenthoughtasmoralinstruction.Ithinkthatthedisastrousresultsofhatredandnarrow-mindednesstothosewhofeelthemcanbepointedoutincidentallyinthecourseofgivingknowledge.Idonotthinkthatknowledgeandmoralsoughttobetoomuchseparated.Itistruethatthekindofspecializedknowledgewhichisrequiredforvariouskindsofskillhasverylittletodowithwisdom.Butitshouldbesupplementedineducationbywidersurveyscalculatedtoputitinitspla__inthetotalofhu__nactivities.EventhebesttechniciansshouldalsobegoodcitizensandwhenIsay“citizens”Imeancitizensoftheworldandnotofthisorthatsectornation.Witheveryincreaseofknowledgeandskillwisdombecomesmorene__ssaryforeverysuchincreaseaugmentsourcapacityofrealizingourpurposesandthereforeaugmentsourcapacityforevilifourpurposesareunwise.Theworldneedswisdomasithasneverneededitbefore;andifknowledgecontinuestoincreasetheworldwillneedwisdominthefutureevenmorethanitdoesnow.
2.SectionTwo:Scien__andTechnology
2.1ComputerinEducationThereisagreatdealofinterestintheuseofcomputersineducation.TheeducationaluseofcomputersiscalledComputerAssistedInstructionorCAI.__nypublicschoolsintheUnitedStatesh__eacquiredcomputersandCAIprogramstorumonthem.Schooldistrictsareestablishingcomputerresour____ntersandspecialtrainingprogramstohelpteachersusecomputers.Inadditionsomecollegesanduniversitiesarebeginningtoestablishcomputerliteracyrequirementsforgraduation.Inspiteofallthisinterestintheuseofcomputersineducationsomeeducatorsandstudentsstill__ybewonderingifthisexpensivetoyisreallyworththeirtimeandinsomecasesmoney.Theanswerisadefiniteyes:Theuseofcomputersineducationhasimportantbenefitsforbothstudentsandteachers.Computersenhan__astudent’slearningexperien__in__nyways.Firstofallthecomputerhastheabilitytoaccommodateindividualdifferen__sinlearningspeedbecausetheuserthestudentistheonewhocontrolsthepa__ofthelessons.Inadditionbecauseacomputerisnonjudgmentalthelearnerdoesnoth__etobeafraidofreprisalorhumiliationwhen__kingerrors.Forexamplebecausecomputerscanrepeatinfor__tionoverandovertheusercanaskfor__nyrepetitionsofalessonwithoutfearingajudgmentalresponseabouthisorherabilitytolearn.Thebeneficialeffectsoflearninginastress-freeatmospherearewelldocumented.AthirdadvantageofCAIisthatcomputercangiveastudentimmediatefeedback.Itcan____thestudentwhysheorheiswrongassoonasanerroris__deanditcanevenprovideanapproachhintforfiguringoutthecorrectanswer.Notonlydocomputersbenefitstudentstheyalso__ketheteacher’sjobeasier.Oneadvantageliesinthepreparationofinstructional__terials.Schoolsandcollegescanpurchaseeducationalcomputerprogramsthatcanbeadaptedtoanylearningsituation.Thesesystemscalled“authoringsystems”arelikeskeletallessonplans:Thefor__tofseveralexercisesandtestsisalreadyplannedout;alltheteacheraddsistheinfor__tionheorshewantsthestudentstolearn__the__ticalproblemsvocabularylistsandsoforth.Theauthoringsystemauto__ticallyincorporatestheseteachingpointsintoitspreplannedfor__tandthenisreadytobeusedbyseveralstudentsforalongtime.Thesystemcanalsocorrectthestudents’workanddetermineandrecordgrades.Inadditionthecomputeroffersnumerousadvantagestoteachersin__nagingtheirclassrooms.Acomputerlaboratoryaroomh__ingonecomputerforeverytwostudentscanfreetheteachertomeetindividuallywithstudentswhiletherestoftheclassisoccupiedwithcomputerlessons.Finallycomputerscanhelpteacherskeepstudentrecordsandchartstudentprogresstherebycuttingdownontime—consumingpaperwork.”Withalloftheseadvantagesforbothteachersandstudentsitiseasytoseewhythereissomuchinterestinusingcomputersineducation.Ofcoursetherearethosewhoareskepticalandviewcomputersasapassingfad.Therearethosealsowhosimplyareafraidofthem.Intimehowevercomputerswillbecomeasfamiliarintheclassroomaschalkboardsaretoday.
2.2Computer__ketheWorkpla__LessFriendlyWeh__eseenthefutureandithurts.That’swhatmillionsofAmericanoffi__workersarediscoveringeveryyearascomputercometodominatetheoffi__andthe__niaforever-increasingprofitsconsumestheworkenviro__ent.Ifpresentsentimentspersisttherecouldbeawhite-collarrevoltasexecutivesandstenographersalikefindthatthe“offi__oftomorrow”isjustthekeypunchcounterpartofthesweatshopofyesterday.Onereasonforthisisthecomputer’spotentialto“deskill”work—toredu__itto______repetitiveactions.Forexampleinsteadofh__ingeachworkerinaninsuran__companyrecordanincominginsuran__claimandthenstaywithitthroughallphasesofpro__ssingthejobisbrokenup:Onedronedoesnothingbutcompletethesamelog-informs;anothergrindoutidenticalletterstodifferentaddresses.Evenvaluedsenioremployeesareburningoutasaconsequen__ofcomputermonitoring—whichaffectsbetween20and35per__ntofAmerica’sworkersaccordingtoareportbytheOffi__oftechnologyAsses__ent[OTA].Whenworkersuseelectronicgearitiseasytometerwork-timetothemillisecondtallybreaksandphonecallsorrankaworker’soutputagainstthatofhiscolleagues.Terminalstrackthenumberofkeystrokesaworkersusesincompletingaparticularproject.Thisisallne__ssary__nagerssaytoimproveproductivity.YettheJapanesedon’tdoitfindingthenotionoffensivetoloyaltyandgroupspirit.BankAmericaforexamplepaid$1millionin1985toinstallacomputersystemforratingthe3500employeesinthecreditcarddivisionon200specificworkcriteria.“Imeasureeverythingthatmoves”theseniorvi__presidentinchargedeclared.Workersarelessenthusiastic.ABostoninsuran__-claimkeypuncherfindsincrediblepressuretoenterdatafasterandfastertomeet__nagement’sstandards.“I’dle__eworkeverydaywithaterribleheadacheandpaininmyneckandshoulders.”It’safamiliarcomplaint.AnOTAsurveyof110organizationsbetween1982and1986foundthatapproxi__telytwo-thirdwereengagedinsomeformofcomputersurveillan__monitoringstandardizedpa__orquotasystems.Thisdespitethefactthatasearlyas1981theNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealthfoundthatclericalworkinvolvingcomputersandvideodisplayterminalsprodu__dahigherleveloftensionthanair-trafficcontrol.Proponentsofhightechnologydi__issedthefindingsatransientspa__ofadjustmenttothenewdigitalworkpla__.Thevolumeofstress-basedcomplaintscontinuestorisehowever.”Inanatmosphereofcomputermonitoringineptworkstationinflexiblepacingandnerve-wrackinganxietywork__n’scompensationclaimsbasedonjobstressh__emorethandoubledsin__1980andnowaccountforapproxi__tely15per__ntofalloccupationaldiseaseclaims.Accordingtoesti__tesbytheOTAstress-relatedillnesscostsbusinessbetween$50and$75billionperyear.LaborDepartmentfiguresshowthatproductivityintheservi__ssector—whereelectronicequipmentshouldh__e__ximumimpactandwhichemploysnearlythreequartersofallAmericanworkers—isscar__lyabovelevelsinthemid-1970schieflybecauseofproblemsunderstandingandadaptingtonewtechnology.
2.3SolarEnergySolarpowerwasanexoticnewtechnologywhenJohnSchaeffergraduatedfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleyin1972andhelpedstartaprimitivecommuneinthewoodsinnorthernCalifornia.Hewasatinkererandinhissparetimehe__nagedtorigupasolar-poweredtelevisionsetsohewouldn’th__etomisshisf__oriteshows.SoonSchaefferwassellingsolarpanelstohisfellowurbanrefugees.TodaySchaeffer’sbeardhasbecomeawhitegoateeandhisRealGoodsTradingCompanyhasblossomedintoacatalogoperationthatisthecountry’slargestretailerofhomesolarequipment.Withacirculationof400000thecatalogofferseverythingfortheenergy-efficienthome.ThegrowthofRealGoods—salesh__ejumpedfrom$29000in1986to$10millionin1933—isa__allbutsharptremoralongtheshiftingtectonicplatesofAmerica’senergylandscape.Untilnowsolarenergyhasappealedmostlytoaffluenthomeownersandthes__e-the-enviro__entfolks.That’sbecausebuyingandinstallingsolarequipmentcancost$15000foran__erage-sizehomebeforeanycurrentsstartstoflow.What’s__kingsolarenergysohotForonethingthetechnologyisgettingbetterandcheaper.Thepri__ofthephotovoltaic__llsthatconvertsunlighttoelectricityhasfallensharplyfrom$500awattinthe1960stoabout$4today.Companiesarenowrushingtobreakthe$2barrier.TexasInstrumentsandSouthernCaliforniaEdisonh__ejoinedfor__stoprodu__flexiblesolarpanelsfrominexpensivelow-gradesilicon.Theinnovativetechnologywillallowthepanelstobeintegratedintocarandbuildingdesignandevenmoreimportant;willcrashthepri__to$
2.50awatt.Someofthebiggestboostersofsolarpoweraretheutilitycompanieseagerforacleansour__ofelectricitythatwillenablethemtoprodu__morepowerwithoutnewbillion-dollarplants.Bothasconsumersofsolartechnologyandasthepromotersofhomesolarpanelsutilitieswilldrivemuchoftheindustry’sgrowthintothenext__ntury.“Utilitiesarebeginningtorealizethatthey’regoingtoh__etogetonthesolarbandwagon”saysS.D__idFree__ngeneral__nageroftheSacramentoMunicipalUtilityDistrict__UD.“Iftheydon’tandratesgoupsharplypeoplearegoingtobuytheirownsolarpanelsandpulltheplugontheutilities.”Hiscompanyembra__dalternativeenergywhenratepayersvotedtocloseitstroublenuclearfacilityin19__.Lastmonth68utilitiesfromNewYorkCitytoSanFranciscoformedaconsortiumtopurchase$500millionworthofsolarpanelsoversixyears.__UDisputtingsolar__llson100residentialroofsayearaspartofafive-yearpilotproject.Encouragedbytheresponse__UDhasordered100000moresolarpanelsenoughtogenerateelectricityfor2400homesandispurchasinglandfora100-MWsolarfurna__thatwouldrivalthesizeofstandardpowerplants.What__UDisdoingparallelswhatdevelopingcountriesh__ebeenuptofor__nyyearsThesenationswhichcannotaffordtobuildcostlynuclearorfossil-fuelplantsinruralareasnowbuynearlytwothirdsofallsolarpanelsprodu__dintheU.S.“InMexicothereare28millionpeoplewithoutelectricityandMexicohasthemostambitioussolarelectrificationprogramintheworld.”ElsewhereIndiaandZimbabweareusingWorldBankfinancingtolightupremoteareaswithsolarpower;Indiaisinstallingphotovoltaicsystemsin38000villagesandZimbabweisbringingsunpowerto2500villages.Buttheeraofsolarpowerwillh__etowaitforthecostofconvertingsunlighttofallenoughtopayforthecostofinstallingasystem.“Solariscompetitivenowifyoutakethelongview”says__UDgeneral__nagerFree__n.“Andit’sgoingtobehighlycompetitivebytheendofthedecade.”Ifhe’srighttheforecastfortheindustryinthe21st__nturyisbrightandsunny.
2.4Micro__chinesInthepastoneofthebiggestdisadvantagesof__chineshasbeentheirinabilitytoworkonamicroortinyscale.Forexampledoctorsdidnoth__edevi__sallowingthemtogoinsidethehu__nbodytoidentifyhealthproblemsortoperformdelicatesurgery.Repaircrewdidnoth__eawayofidentifyingbrokenpipeslocateddeepwithinahigh-riseapartmentbuilding.Howeverthat’sabouttochange.Advan__sincomputersandbiophysicsh__estartedamicrominiaturerevolutionthat’sallowingscientiststoenvisionandinsomecasesactuallybuildmicroscopic__chines.Thesedevi__spromisetoradicallychangethewayweliveandwork.Micro__chinesalreadyare__kinganimpact.AtCaseWesternReserveUniversityinClevelandOhioresearchscientistsh__edesigneda4-inchsiliconchipthatholds700tinyprimitivemotors.AtLucasNovaSensorinFremontCaliforniascientistsh__eperfectedtheworld’sfirstmicroscopicblood-pressuresensor.Micro__chinesh__ecapturedtheinterestofawiderangeofindustries.Automobile__nufacturerssoonwillbeginusingtinydevi__sthatrunonstaticelectricitytosensewhentoreleaseanairbagandhowtokeepenginesandbreaksoperatingefficiently.__chineslikethesearelikelytoappearinairplanesandevenspa__vehiclesbythebeginningofthenext__ntury.Somefuturistsenvisionmicro__chinesalsobeingusedtoexplorethedeepseain__allsub__rineoreventolaunchfingersizedrocketspackedwithmicrominiatureinstruments.Theapplicationsaremostpromotinginthemedicalfield.CardiovascularI__gingSystemsinSunnyvaleCalifornia__nufacturersaprobe__allerthan1millimeterthatcanprovidesnapshotsofapatient’sarteries.It’scurrentlyusedinmorethan200cardiology__ntersaroundtheworld.SaysDirectorof__rketingAdamDakin:“Everybodyistryingtocreateminiaturizeddevi__sforinvasivesurgery.There’snoquestionthatitwillplayaprominentroleinthefuture.”Although______versionsofminiaturedevi__sh__ealreadyhadanimpactadvan__dversionsandwidespreadusearestillseveralyearsaway.InJapanscientistsaredesigningan“in____igent”microdevi__thatcantr__elthroughthehu__ndigestivetract.Andairplaneseventuallymightbeabletotwistandadapttheirwingstobemoreefficientandflexible.Artificialbodypartsmightprovidetotalflexibilityandfullcapabilitiesforpeoplewhoh__elosttheirnaturallimbs.“Thereisanexplosionofnewideasandapplications”saysKurtPetersenwhoeightyearsagocofoundedLucasNovaSensor.Sowhenscientistsnowthinkaboutfuture__chinesdoinglargeandcomplextasksthey’rethinking__allerthaneverbefore.
2.5SocialResponsibleinScien__andArtsComparedwiththeimmediatepracticalresponsibilityofthescientisttheresponsibilityoftheartistmustseempuny.Thedecisionwhichfa__shimisnotIthinkoneofpracticalaction:ofcoursehewilltrytothrowhisweightintothescaleandthatweightifheisawriterorevenapainterofgenius__yh__eitseffect.Forthenovelist—inoursocietytheonlyartistwhohasa__ssau___n__andatthesametimeeffectiveeconomiccontrolofthemeansofaddressingit–thehopeofsomedecisiveinfluen__isareasonableone.Forhimsin__hetakesofallartistswhatisprobablythelargestportionofhiscultureas__terialthereisnomoreescapefromthene__ssityfortreatingthecontentofhisworkseriouslythanthereisforthesocialpsychologistheiscomingsocloselytoresemble.Thedichotomywhichpeopleh__etriedtoestablishbetweenartisticproficiencyandartisticcontentisbecomingunbearabletoalmostallsensitiveminds.Idoubtifithaseverbeenreal—wemighth__eadmiredShelleyasmuchifhehadbeenindifferenttosuchthingsaswarandtyrannythoughIdoubtit;__rtainlyhadhebeenindifferentweshouldneverh__ebeenledbyhim.ThereisnoHippocraticOathinliteratureandIamnotattemptingtodrawoneup.AsfarasIamcon__rnedtheartistisahu__nbeingwritlargeandhisethicsaretheethicsofanyhu__nbeing.PerhapsIcanbestillustratewhatseemstomethenewconsciousnessofthosedutiesofassertionandrefusalfromonewriterandIdonotthinkitiswithoutsignifican__thatthiswriterprojectsthewholesituationofchoi__intoascientificparabletheparableofapestilen__:apestilen____nyhu__nbeingsarecalledtofightagainstcallednotbyanysupernaturalobligationbutbythe______factthatthefightagainstaplagueissomethinglikeabiologicalhu__nobligation.AlbertCamusseemstometobethefirstmodernwriterthoughIam__rtainhewillnotbethelasttoputtheproblemofresponsibilityinspecificterms:“Ionlyknow”hewrote“thatinthisworldtherearepestilen__sandtherearevictimsanditisuptousnottoallyourselveswiththepestilen__s.”Forthemedicalscientistwhoknowsthathe__yquitewellbecalledupontodaytouseliteralpestilen__sofmindandbodyinpsychologicalandbacteriologicalwa___rethatstatementhasameaningclearerIthinkandmoreimperativethanitsauthorintended.Butforthescientistasgeneralenemyofpestilen__sandtheartistasgeneralrepresentativeofhu__nitythebasicpestilen__whichbyitsepidemicspreadinourtimechallengeshisallegian__isthesame—itisthepestilen__whichthroughthespreadofirrationalfearsandirrationalhatredsthroughtheac__ptan__ofcoercionthroughtheneglectofwhatonecanonlycallsocialandpersonalsanitationinourattitudestosocietyleadsustoforgetwhoweareandwhoourfellowmenare:thepestilen__whichexterminates“gooks”ordissidentswhichapologizesfortortureand__ssacreinanyshapeorformwhetheritbecalledforthemomentrevolutionorcollectivesecuritythepestilen__ofatombombsandcon__ntrationcamps.Inthelastresortthereisonlyoneethicallysatisfactoryreplytothatpestilen__:anunqualifiedandunargued“No”.This“No”doesnotspringIthinkfromanyidealisticormetaphysicalimperativebutsimplyfromthefactthatbysayinganythingelseweshould__asetobehu__nbeings.
2.6Enviro__entalStressNewtechnologiesoftencausenewformofpollutionandenviro__entalstress.Pollution__ybedefinedastheadditiontotheenviro__entofagentsthatarepotentiallyda__gingtothewelfareofhu__nsorotherorgani__s.Enviro__entalstressisamoregeneraltermthatreferstotheeffectsofsocietyonthenaturalenviro__ent.Pollutionisthemostcommonformofenviro__entstressbutitisnottheonlyone.Oneexampleofenviro__entalstressresultingfromtechnologyisthesurprisingfindingthatwinterfishkillsinWisconsinlakeswerecausedbysnowmobiles.He__ysnowmobileuseonalakecompactsthesnowtherebyreducingtheamountofsunlightfilteringthroughthei__andinterferingwithphotosynthesisbyaquaticplants.Astheplantlife___sitsdecompositionfurtherredu__stheamountofoxygeninthewater.Thefishthen___ofasphyxiation.Thefish-plant-oxygenrelationshipisanaturalecologicalsystem.Thesnowmobileisatechnologicalinnovationwithavarietyofpotentialuses.Theproduction__rketinganduseofsnowmobilesareelementsofasocialsystem.Itisthissocialsystemthatisresponsiblefortheenviro__entalstressresultingfromsnowmobileuse.Theland__ailableforsnowmobilingisincreasinglyscar__inanurbansocietyliketheUnitedStates.Frozenlakesnearurban__ntersthusseemidealforthispurposebutsnowmobilescauseenviro__entalstressintheformoffishkillsandtherebycreatetheneedfornewsocialcontrolsovertheusesofthistechnology.Oftentheneedforsuchcontrolsdoesnotbecomeapparentuntilagreatdealofda__gehasbeendone.Norisiteverentirelyclearthatnewsocialcontrolsornewtechnologiescansolvetheproblemathand.Forexampleweknowhowtosolvetheproblemofsulfuremissionsfromburningcoalwhichcausetheacidrainthatdestroysforestsandlakesbutthesearecostlyandhen__arepoliticallycontroversial.Opinionpollsh__eshownthatAmericansthinknotenoughisbeingdonetoimproveandprotecttheenviro__ent.Alarge__joritybelieveenviro__entalqualityisdeclining.Butwhenfa__dwiththehighertaxbillsandenergyratesrequiredtopaythecostsofcleaninguptheenviro__enttheyoftenprotest.Stu___softheimpactandsocialcontroloftechnologiesareanincreasinglyactivefrontierofsociologicalresearch.TheEnviro__entalSociologysectionoftheAmericanSociologicalAssociationroutinelypublishesresearchreportsthatassessthepollutingandenviro__entallystressfulimpactsoftechnology.__nysuchstu___sh__eshownthatthepeoplewhobearthehe__iestburdenofpollutionaremostoftenthosewhoareleastabletoescapeitseffects.Thepoorminoritiesandworkersandtheirfamiliesinindustrialregionsareexposedtohigherlevelsofairwaterandsolid-wastepollutionthanmoreaffluentpeople.Butthesestu___sh__ealsoshownthattheeffectsofpollutionfrequentlyeitherarenotper__ivedoraredeniedbythepeoplewhofeelthemmost.Forexamplearandomsamplesurveyonper__ptionsofpollutionintwohighlypollutedminingandlumberingtownsin__ntralCanadafoundthat“halfofthetotalnumberofrespondentsinterviewedeitherdidnotper__iveapollutionproblematallorelseregardeditasbeingofverylittleimportan__.”Thestudyalsofoundthatevenamongthosewhodidper__ivetheeffectsofpollutionintheairandwaterandonthelandscapeahuge__jority83-__per__ntwere“notpreparedtodoanythingaboutit.”Thisisnotasurprisingfinding.Peoplewhoselivelihoodsdependonpollutingindustriesgenerallylearntotolerateandevenignorethepollutionassociatedwiththoseindustries.Infactwhenenviro__entalactivistsprotectagainstthepollutingeffectsofminesand__elterstheyoftenfindthattheirmostvocalopponentsarethosewhoaremostnegativelyaffectedbythepollution.Inthepasttwentyyearshowevertherehasbeenasignificantchangeinattitudesespeciallyonthepartoftradeunionleadersinpollutingindustries;suchleadersaremorelikelytopressforpollutioncontrolsthantheywereinthepast.Insumalthoughscientificdiscoveriesandtechnologicaladvan__sh__eprodu__dtremendousimprovementsinthequalityofhu__nlifetheyh__eoftenhadnegativeconsequen__saswell.Theriskofcan__rcausedbytheinhalationofa__estosparticlesthepossibilityoflarge-scaleindustriesaccidentstheethicalissuesraisedbytheuseoflife-prolongingtechnologiesandtheever-presentdangerofnuclearholocaustareasmuchapartofthemoderneraasspa__tr__elmiracledrugsandcomputersthatcanoperatewholefactories.Althoughtechnologyisnot“outofcontrol”thereisclearlyaneedforimprovedpro__duresforanticipatingandpreventingthenegativeconsequen__sofnewtechnologies.
2.7HighTechnologyandEmploymentTherapidgrowthofemploymentinindustrialregionslikeCalifornia’s“SiliconValley”Route128outsideBostonandthe“SiliconPrairie”intheDallasFortWorthareaaswellasinhundredofindustrialparksthroughouttheUnitedStatesisviewedasoneofthebenefitsofinvestmentinhigh-technologyindustries.Thetermhightechnologyisassociatedwithcomputersadvan__delectronicsgeneticengineeringandotherfrontiersoftechnologicalchangebutitisrarelywelldefined.Andwithoutacleardefinitionofthistermitisalmostimpossibletoassessitsimpactonsociety.Asthetermisusedbyacademicspolicy__kersandjournalistshightechnologyreferstoatleastoneofthefollowingfeaturesoftechnology:Anextensivedegreeoftechnologicalsophisticationembo___dinaproduct.Arapidrateofemploymentgrowthassociatedwithaninnovativeproduct.Alargeresearchanddevelopmenteffortassociatedwithproduction.Oneimplicationofthisdefinitionisthatitincludesjob-creatingpro__sseslikeresearchanddevelopmentaswellastechnologieslikecomputerswhichalsoh__ecreatednewgrowthinemployment.Yettheemployment-producingfeaturesofhightechnologycanbeproble__tic.__nyhightechnologiessuchasroboticsandcomputer-aideddesignareintendedtoredu__employmentbysubstitutingtheworkof__chinesguidedbycomputersforhu__nproductionofallkinds.Early__chinetechnologiestendedtorepla__hu__nlaborpowerbuthightechnologytendstoredu__theneedforhu__nbrainpower.Employmentinoccupationslikedraftingandindustrialdrawinginengineeringandarchitectureforexampleisthreatenedbytheac__leratinguseofcomputerdesignandgraphicsprograms.
2.8TheEffectsofTechnologyItshouldbenotedthattheeffectsofnewtechnologiesarenotalwayspositive.Thephrasetechnologicalduali__issometimesusedtorefertothefactthattechnologicalchangesoftenh__ebothpositiveandnegativeeffects.Theintroductionof___sellocomotivesforexamplegreatlyincreasedtheefficiencyofrailroadoperationsbutitisalsoledtothedeclineandeventualabando__entofrailroadtownswhoseeconomieswerebasedontheservicingofsteamlocomotives.Anotherexampleistheauto__tionofindustrialproduction.Auto__tionhasgreatlyimproved__nufacturingpro__ssin__nyindustries.Ithasincreasedthesafetyof__rtainproductiontasksandledtoimprovedproductqualityin__nycases.Butithasalsorepla__dthousandsof__nualworkerswith__chinesandsignificantnumbersofthoseworkersfindthemselvesunemployedandlackingtheskillsrequiredbythehigh-techoccupationsofpostindustrialsociety.Someobserversgosofarastosaythattechnologyisadangertothemodernworld.Theyfeelthatithasbecomeanautonomousfor__thatitisoutofcontrol.Thisisarecurrentthemeinmoviesandscien__fiction-HALthecomputerthattakesovertheshipin2001:ASpa__Odysseyisagoodexample.Butitisalsoclaimedthattechnologyisincreasinglyindependentfromhu__ncontrolintherealworld.EventsliketheaccidentattheThreeMileIslandnuclear-powerplantin1979;thetoxicgasleakthatkilledmorethan2000peopleinBhopalIndiain1984;andthedisasterattheChernobylnuclear-powerplantintheSovietUnionin1986seemtoindicatethathu__nbeingscannotcontrolthetechnologiestheyh__ecreated.Sociologistswhoh__estu___sthisissuepointoutthattheproblemisnotoneofhu__nsbeingdominatedby__chinesbutratheroneofdependingontechnologytomeetawideandgrowingrangeofhu__nneeds.TheThreeMileIslandpowerplantprovidedelectricityforthousandsofhomesandbusinesses;theBhopalfacilityprodu__dapesticidethat__depossiblelargerharvestsofmuchneededgrain.Theresultofourdependen__onthebenefitsofcomplextechnologiesisanincreasinglycomplexsetoforganizationsandpro__duresforputtingthosetechnologiestowork.Thisrequiresmorehu__neffortandskillandthechan__soferrorandbreakdownaregreater.Thepointisnotthattechnologyisoutofcontrolbutthatoftenthereisalagbetweentheintroductionofnewtechnologiesandthedevelopmentofadequatecontrolsovertheapplicationofthosetechnologies.Oneofthe__inissuesthatcon__rnssocialscientistsinthisregardiswhysuchlagsoccur.Considertheproblemknownaswindshear.Inre__ntyearsnumerous__jorplanecrashesh__ebeencausedbysuddendowndraftsassociatedwithseverethunderstormsontheapproachestoairportrunways.Thesedowndraftsliterallyslamlargeaircrafttotheground.Industryandgover__entofficialsh__eknownaboutthewind-shearproblemsin__atleast1975whenanEasternAirlinesjetcrashedatNewYork’sKennedyAirportundersuchconditions.ButnotuntilasimilarcrashoccurredinNewOrleansin1984wereairportsorderedtoinstallinstrumentsthatcouldpredictsuchconditions.WhythedelaySomesociologistsh__earguedthatthepressureoncorporationstoshowaprofitcausesthemtoneglectspendingonsafetymeasures.Otherstakingamorefunctionalistviewtendtoexplainsuchlagsintermsofthetimerequiredfororganizationstorecognizethecausesoftheproblemanddevelopnewstatusesandrolestocopewiththem.
2.9TechnologyandSocialChangeTheobviousimportan__oftechnologytohu__nculturalandsocialevolutionhasledsomesociologiststoviewtechnologyasabasicprincipleofsocialchange.TheclassicstatementofthisviewisthatofWilliamFieldingOgburn.Ogburnhypothesizedthatinventionsaffectthesizeofpopulationswhichinturninfluen__sthecourseofhistory.Forexampleoverpopulationoftenleadstowarsandmigrations.Someinventionsaffectpopulationdirectly:Improvementinsanitationthedevelopmentofcuresforfatalillnessesandmoreeffectivecontra__ptivetechniquesareexamples.Butinventionscanalsoh__eindirecteffectsonpopulation.Forexampletechniquesthatimprovecropyieldsorpermitlong-termstorageoffoodsurpluses__keitpossibletosupportalargerpopulationwithagivenamountoffarmland.Andimprovementinmilitarytechnologye.g.theuseofhorsesinwa___retheinventionofgunpowderandthedevelopmentofthearmoredtankh__ehaddra__ticeffectsontheconductofwarandhen__onpopulationsize.Ogburnalsoproposedthetheoryknownasculturalleg.Inhiswords“Aculturallagoccurswhenoneoftwopartsofculturewhicharecorrelatedchangesbeforeoringreaterdegreethantheotherpartdoestherebycausinglessadjustmentbetweenthetwopartsthanexistedpreviously”.Thistheoryismostoftenappliedtotheadaptationofsocialinstitutionstochangingtechnologies.Forexampletheindustrialrevolutiong__ebirthtotoo__nykindsof__chinesoftenwithmovingpartsthat__dethemdangeroustouse.Theratesofinjuryanddeathresultingfromindustrialaccidentsclimbedrapidlyinthedecadesfollowingtheintroductionofthenew__chinestotheUnitedStatesaround
1870.Suchaccidentsspelleddisasterforworkersandtheirfamiliessin__itwashardtoprovethattheemployerwasresponsiblefortheaccident.Itwasnotuntilaround1910thatthecon__ptsofemployerliabilityandworker’scompensationwereadoptedalagofaboutfortyyears.Oneproblemwiththecultural-lagtheoryisthatitfailstoaccountfortheeffectsofsocialpower.Forexampleworkerswhosoughtcompensationforthecostofindustrialaccidentsdidnoth__enearlyasmuchpowertoinfluen__law__kersastheownersofthe__chinesdid.Whenthispowerimbalan__changedasaresultofthelabormovementitbecamepossibletoenactlegislationthatwouldprotecttheworkers.ThelagsdescribedbyOgburncanbeatleastpartiallyredu__dbythepro__ssoftechnologyasses__entoreffortstoanticipatetheconsequen__sofparticulartechnologiesforindividualsandforsocietyasawhole.The__ssiveplantoredu__airpollutionintheLosAngelesBasindescribedatthebeginningofthechapterrequirescarefulasses__ent.AccordingtotheNationalEnviro__entalPolicyActof1972andrelatedstatelawsany__joractionbyapublicagencythataffectstheenviro__entmustbeassessedforitsimpactontheenviro__entandonthecitizensinvolved.Lawsthatrequiretechnologyasses__entespeciallythosethatrequirecorporationsastoabidebythefindingofsuchasses__ent-tendtoincreasethepowerofcitizensincommunitiesaffectedbytechnologicalchange.Theyarethereforeasour__bothofconflictandofmovementsforsocialreform.IntheLosAngelescaseanumberof__allinadequatelyfundedenviro__entalorganizationswereabletofor__theCaliforniaEnviro__entalPolicyAdministrationtofundtheairpollutionplan.Theoriesthatviewtechnologicalinnovationsasasour__ofsocialchangemustalsorecognizethattechnologicalchangesdonotoccuratanevenpa__.Some____ystsparticularlytheSovieteconomistN.D.Kondratieffbelievethattechnologicalinnovationfollowsacyclicalpattern.Theyh__eshownthatthegrowthofparticularindustriesprodu__sa“longboom”aperiodofeconomicexpansionandprosperitythatlastsabouttwenty-fiveyearsandisfollowedbyaperiodofdeclineanddepressionofaboutthesameduration.It__ybethatthenewtechnologiesofcomputersandauto__tionwillbegananotherlongboomorw__eofeconomicgrowthinthenextdecadeas__nypeopleinadvan__dindustrialsocietieshope.Butitisclearthatinthelate1970sthepreviouslongboomstimulatedinpartbythe__ailabilityofcheapenergywasover.Aneweconomicboomtherefore__ydependonnewdevelopmentsinenergytechnologies.
2.10TheQuestforEnergyThroughouthu__nhistorya__ntralaspectoftechnologicalchangehasbeenthequestfornewsour__sofenergytomeettheneedsofgrowingpopulation.Thatquesthasgivenrisetoasuc__ssionofenergytechnologieseachmoresophisticatedthanthelast.Ani__lpowerg__ewaytosteam-driven__chinerywhichinturnwasrepla__dbytheinternal-combustionengine.Relian__onoilanditsderivativesespeciallygasolineencouragedthegrowthofpowerfulenergycorporationswhichoftenlobbygover__entagenciesforassistan__indevelopingnewtechnologieslikenuclearenergy.Andtodaythetechnologicallyadvan__dnationsareattemptingtocontrolthefusionreactioninwhichhydrogenatomsarefusedintoheliumtherebyproducinganenormousreleaseofenergy.Theimplicationsofthisenergytechnologyifitcanbeachievedarestaggering.Fusionpromisestobringabouta__jorrevolutioninhu__nexisten__.Itcould__kepossiblethecolonizationandexplorationofspa__therapiddevelopmentoftheless-developednationstheeliminationofenergytechnologiesbasedonoilandcoalwhichpollutetheenviro__entandmuchelse.Buttheefforttodevelopfusionpowerisalsoindicativeofafundamentalcrisisinmodernlife:thedwindlingsupplyofenergyresour__s.Theproblemofoildepletionisonlythemostre__ntinaseriousofenergycrisesthatbeganwiththedepletionofthesupplyofgameani__lsthroughhuntinginPaleolithictimes.Theshortageofmeatcreatedconditionsthatspurredthedevelopmentofagriculture.LaterinthewaningyearsoftheRomanEmpireashortageoflaborpowertogrindflourencouragedtheuseofwaterpower.TheindustrialrevolutionhaditsoriginsinthedepletionofthesupplyofwoodduringtheRenaissan__.Coalwasplentifulandexperimentswithitsuseasanenergysour__ledtothedevelopmentofnewtechniquesforproducingenergyandnew__chineryandpro__ssesfor__nufacturinggoods.Todayassuppliesofoilandcoaldiminishthesearchfornewenergysour__scontinues.Itwouldseemfromwhatweh__esaidsofarthatthequestforenergyisapositivefor__thatresultsinnewsometimesrevolutionarytechnologiesthatgreatlyimprovethequalityofhu__nlife.__nypeoplebelievethatsocietiescanmeettheirgrowingenergyneedsbycontinuallyinvestinginmoresophisticatedtechnologies.Thisapproachhasledtothedevelopmentofhugenuclear-powerplantstorepla__oil-fueledgeneratorsanditiswidelyhopedthatinvestmentinfusionanevenmorecomplextechnologywilleliminatethedangersposedbynuclearpower.Thisviewissu__ecttoconsiderablecritici__however.AmoryLovinsforexampledistinguishesbetween“hard”and“soft”energypaths.Theformer“reliesonrapidexpansionof__ntralizedhightechnologiestoincreasesuppliesofenergyespeciallyintheformofelectricity.”Thelatter“combinesapromptandseriouscommitment”toefficientuseofenergyandrapiddevelopmentofrenewableenergysour__s.”Presentandproposedenergypoliciesf__orthe“hard”pathwhichinvolvesintensiveuseof__ailablecoaloilandnaturalgasplushe__yinvestmentinnuclearpower.Theseare“capital-intensive”technologiesbecausetheyrelyhe__ilyonsophisticatedequipmentcapitalratherthanlaborpower.“Soft”energytechnologiesdependonrenewablesour__slikesunandwindandtendtobelabor-intensiveinthatlargernumbersofpeopleareneededtoprodu__agivenamountofenergy.Theyaremorediversethan“hard”energytechnologiesandaremoredirectly__tchedtoenergyneeds.Solarenergyforexamplecanbeusedtoheatwaterwithoutfirstbeingconvertedintoelectricity.Butthe__jordifferen__betweenthetwopathsaccordingtoLovinsisthatwhereasthesoftpathdependson“pluralisticconsumerchoi__indeployingamyriadof__alldevi__sandrefinementsthehardpathdependsondifficultlarge-scaleprojects[e.g.nuclear-powerplantsandfusionreactors]requiringa__jorsocialcommitmentunder__ntralized__nagement.”Suchprojectsarecharacterizedbya“remoteand…uncontrollabletechnologyrunbyafarawaybureaucratizedtechnicalelitewhoh__eprobablyneverheardofyou.”Whetherornotoneac__ptsLovins’sthesisthetrendtowardgreateruseofnuclearpowertogenerateelectricityhasbecomea__jorsocialandpoliticalissue.Underlyingtheconflictoverthesafetyofnuclear-powerplantsistheissueofcontrol.Intheancientworldthosewhocontrolledtheirrigationsystemsweretherulingelite;intheUnitedStatesthe“robberbarons”ofthelatenineteenth__nturyoftengainedbothwealthandpoliticalinfluen__fromtheircontrolofoilandcoalsupplies.Thusmuchoftheoppositiontonuclear-powerplantsstemsfromtherecognitionthatcontroloverenergysuppliesisakeysour__ofeconomicandpoliticalpower.
2.11TechnologyinEverydayLifeInareviewofresearchontheimpactofnewtechnologiesonthedailylivesofAmericansClaudeS.Fischerfoundthatsuchresearchhasnotkeptpa__withtechnologicalinnovation.Evenrevolutionaryinnovationsliketheautomobileandthetelephonere__inpoorlyunderstood.Conflictingclaimsabound.Forexamplein1936HelenandRobertLyndweretoldbyresidentsofMiddletownthatautomobileuseseemedtobedecreasingchurchattendan__andgeneratingconflictwithinthefamily.Butotherstu___ssuggestedthattheautomobilewasincreasingchurchattendan__especiallyamongmoreisolatedpeoplewhofounditeasiertogettochurchonSunday.GivensuchgapsinourunderstandingoftheimpactoftechnologyonsociallifeFischerarguedthatsociologistsshould__oidassumingthattheeffectsofinnovationsareexperien__dbyeveryoneinmoreorlessthesameway.Insteadhebelievesthattechnologiesshouldbethoughtofasfacilitatorsofhu__nactionratherthanasfor__sthatdictatewhatwedo.Oftenforexampleourusesoftechnologiesdonotconformtowhattheirinnovatorsbelievedpossibleordesirable.Acaseinpointisthegrowinginciden__ofcomputercrimesandtheuseofhomeantennadishestotapintosa____itevideotran__issions.Thepla__oftechnologyinmodernsocietiesisasu__ectofcontinuingcontroversy.Keyissuesincludenotonlytheimpactoftechnologyondailylifebutalsotheneedtocontrolthedevelopmentandusesoftechnologicalinnovationssothattheybenefitallsectorsofsociety.
2.12Scien__TechnologyandSociety:TheCaseofMedicalTechnologyThroughoutmostofhu__nhistorylimitationsonfoodproductiontogetherwithlackofmedicalknowledgeh__epla__dlimitsonthesizeofpopulation.Dreadfuldiseaseslikethebubonicplagueh__eactuallyredu__dpopulations.InEnglandtheplagueknownastheBlackDeathwasresponsibleforadrasticdropinthepopulationin1348andforthelackofpopulationgrowthintheseventeenth__ntury.In1625morethan35000residentsofLondon___doftheplague.__allpoxanddysenteryh__ehadsimilarthoughlessdra__ticeffects.Untilrelativelyre__ntlyphysicianswerepowerlesseithertochecktheprogressofdiseaseortoprolonglife.Infacttheyoftendidmoreharmthangood—theirreme___sweremoreharmfulthantheillnessestheywereintendedtocure.AsLewisTho__shasstated“Bleedingpurgingcuppingtheadministrationofinfusionsofeveryknownplantsolutionsofeveryknownmetaleverycon__ivable___tincludingtotalfastingmostofthesebasedontheweirdesti__giningsaboutthecauseofthediseaseconcoctedoutofnothingbutthinair-thiswastheheritageofmedicineupuntilalittleovera__nturyago.”Tho__s’spointisthatthenineteenth__nturywhenscientistsfinallybegantounderstandthenatureofdiseasephysiciansbasedtheirtreatmentsonfolkloreandsuperstition.Infactwithfewex__ptionsthepracti__ofhealinglike__nyotheraspectsofscien__wascloselylinkedtoreligion.InancientGreecepeoplewhosufferedfromchronicillnessesandphysicalimpairmentswouldjourneytothetempleofAsclepiusthegodofhealinginsearchofacure.Eventodaypilgrimsstilltr__eltothecathedralatLourdesinFranceinthebeliefthatthey__ybecuredofblindnessparalysisorleprosy.NotuntilLouisPasteurRobertKochandotherresearchersdevelopedthegermtheoryofdiseasedidmedicinebecomefullydifferentiatedfromreligion.Theirdiscoveriestogetherwithprogressininternalmedicinepathologytheuseofanesthesiaandsurgicaltechniquesledtothetwentieth-__nturycon__ptofmedicineasascientificdiscipline.Duringthenineteenth__nturyscientificresearchresultedinthediscoveryofthecausesof__nydiseasesbutatfirstthisprogressledphysicianstodolessfortheirpatientsratherthanmore:Theybegantoallowthebody’snaturalhealingpro__ssestoworkand__asedtoengageinda__gingpro__dureslikebloodletting.Atthesametimethey__de__jorstridestowardimprovingpublic-healthpracti__s.Theylearnedabouthygienesterilizationandotherbasicprinciplesofpublichealthespeciallytheneedtoseparatedrinkingwaterfromwastewater.Theseinnovationswhichoccurredbeforethedevelopmentofmoresophisticateddrugsandmedicaltechnologiescontributedtoademographicrevolutionthatisstillunderwayinsomepartsoftheworld.Suddenlyratesofinfantmortalitydecreaseddra__ticallybirthsbegantooutnumberdeathsandlifeexpectancyincreased.Thischangeresultednotfromthehighlysophisticatedtechniquesofmodernmedicinebutlargelyfromtheapplicationof______sanitationtechniquesandsterilizationpro__dures.Infactthese______technologiesh__ehadsucha__rkedeffectoninfantsurvivalthattherateofinfantmortalityinasocietyisoftenusedasaquickmeasureofitssocialandeconomicdevelopment.Insumasmedicalscien__progressedtowardgreaterunderstandingofthenatureofdiseaseanditspreventionnewpublic-healthand__ternal-carepracti__scontributedtorapidpopulationgrowth,inthesecondhalfofthenineteenth__nturysuchdiscoveriesasantisepticsandanesthesia__depossibleotherlife-prolongingmedicaltreatments.In____yzingtheeffectsofthesetechnologiessociologistsaskhowpeopleindifferentsocialclassesgainac__sstothemandhowtheycanbemoreequitablydistributedamongthemembersofasociety.Thewaysinwhichmedicaltechnologiesh__ebeeninstitutionalizedinhospitalsandthemedicalprofessionarea__ntralfocusofsociologicalresearchonthesequestions.
2.13TheImpactofTechnologyThecaseofmedicaltechnologyillustrateson__againthattechnologycanbebothablessingandacurse.Inre__ntdecadesweh__ebecomeincreasinglyawarethattheproblemsofhu__nlifecannotalwaysbesolvedbytechnologicalmeans.The“technologicalfix”canh__eadverseconsequen__s.Inthecaseofmedicaltechnologyvitalethicalissuesmustbeaddressed.Othertechnologiessuchasnuclearpowerandchemicalplantscandirectlythreatenhu__nlife.AsCharlesPerrowwrites“Hu__n-__decatastrophesappeartoh__eincreasedwithindustrializationaswebuiltdevi__sthatcouldcrashsinkburnorexplode.”Perrowalsopointsoutthattheincreasingcomplexityofmoderntechnologyhasledtoanewkindofcatastrophe:thefailureofwholesystemsi.e.activitiesandorganizationalnetworksaswellasapparatusasinthecaseoftheThreeMileIslandaccidentortheChallengerdisaster.Theenormousrisksassociatedwithcomplextechnologiesh__eled__nyobserverstocallforamorethoroughasses__entofthepotentialimpactofnewtechnologiesbeforetheyareputintooperation.AccordingtoPerrowitisimportanttostudytechnologicalsystemsintheirentirelyratherthanfocusingonindividualcomponentsofthosesystems.ForexampleinthecaseofThreeMileIslandtheaccidentwasnota________tterofafaultyvalvebuttheconsequen__ofacombinationoffactors—anoverworked__intenan__staffequipmentfailuresineffectivesafetyprecautionsinadequatetrainingandtheunwillingnessofscientistsandbureaucratstoadmitthattheymightbemistaken.SimilarconditionsledtotheexplosionoftheChallengerspa__shuttlein
1986.On__againweareremindedthattechnologyconsistsnotjustofapparatusthatcan__lfunctionbutalsoofknowledgeandskillsthat__ybedeficientandoforganizationalnetworksthatoccasionallybreakdown.
2.14ScientificInstitutionsSociologistswhostudyscientificinstitutionsgenerallyfollowoneoftwobasicapproachesdescribedasinteractionistandinstitutional.Thosewhousetheinteractionistapproachobservehowscientistsinteractamongthemselves—forexamplehowtheydivideandcoordinateworkinlaboratoriesandhowtheyapproachscientificproblems.Thosewhousetheinstitutionalapproachstudytheroleofthescientistindifferentcountriesthestructureofscientificorganizationsandthecultureofscientificinstitutionsi.e.thenormsandvaluesofscien__.Thisdistinctionisnottotal;howeverthereisagreatdealofoverlapbetweenthetwoapproaches.TheInternationalApproachStu___susingtheinteractionistapproachh__efocusedonthescientificcommunity—thatison“thenetworkofcommunicationandsocialrelationshipsbetweenscientistsworkingingivenfieldsorinallfields.”Thequestionsaskedbysociologistswhotakethisapproachpertaintohowscientistsgoaboutthedailyworkofresearchandwhyscientific“revolutions”sometimesoccur.Inawell-knownstudyentitledTheStructureofScientificRevolutionsTho__sKuhnexploredthenatureofthescientificcommunity.Hefoundthattherulesofthescientificmethodarenotadequatetodescribewhatscientistsdo.Ratherthanspendingtheirtimetestingandrefutingexistinghypothesesinordertoestablishnewmorevalidonestheyoftentakeitforgrantedthatexistingtheoriesarevalidandusethemintheireffortstosolvespecificproblems.Inotherwordstheresearcherusesexistingtheoriesandmethodsasaparadigmormodeltoguidefutureresearch.Thisviewofthescientificcommunityorrathercommunitiesofspecializedresearchersimpliesthatscien__isinsulatedfromtherestofsociety.Scientistsareguidedbythetraditionofresearchintheirfieldwhichispassedalongfromonegenerationofscientiststothenext.Theproblemstheychoosetosolvearedeterminedbythattraditionasarethemethodstheyuseintryingtosolvethem.Thispro__sscontinuesaccordingtoKuhnuntiltheparadigmisnolongeruseful—thatisuntilenoughmembersofthescientificcommunitybelieveaparticularsetofobservationscannolongerbeexplainedbyexistingtheoriesandpro__dures.Thenthecommunitybecomesmoreopentooutsideinfluen__s.Itsmembersexploreavarietyofideasnotdirectlyrelatedtothedominantparadigmintheirfieldideasthatinsomecasesleadtoascientificrevolution.Whenthisoccurstheoldparadigmissetasideinf__orofanewonethatwillhen__forthguidetheworkofthemembersofaparticularscientificcommunity.Someofthemostfamousscientificrevolutionsh__eoccurredinphysicsforexampleintheshiftfromNewtonianphysicstoEinstein’stheoryofrelativelyandquantumtheoryandmostre__ntlyinthediscoveryoftheexisten__ofsubatomicparticles.TheInstitutionalapproachTheinstitutionalapproachtothestudyofscien__doesnotcontradicttheinteractionistview.Insteaditaskedwhyscien__developsdifferentlyindifferentsocietiesandwithwhatconsequen__s.Inthisapproach__rtainconditionsencouragethedevelopmentofscientificinstitutions.Thoseconditionsincludetherecognitionofempiricalresearchasalegiti__tewayofgainingnewknowledge.Inadditionscien__mustbeindependentfromotherfieldssuchastheologyorphilosophy.Undersuchconditionsseparateinstitutionsdevotedtoscientificresearchsuchasgraduateschoolsandinstitutesoftechnologycandevelop.ThishasbeenthecaseintheUnitedStateswheretheintroductionofgraduatetraininginthescien__stogetherwithresearchrelatedtoprofessionaltrainingasoccursforexampleinmedicalschoolsledtotheestablishmentoffullyequippedresearchinstitutesat__jorcollegesanduniversities.Oneeffectofthepresen__ofsuchinstitutesisalargeproportionofAmericansamongthewinnersofNobelprizesinthescien__s.Theinstitutionalizationofscien__intheUnitedStateshashaddra__ticandfar-reachingeffects.“Inagricultureeducationsociologyandeventuallyinnuclearresearchtheuniversitiespioneeredresearchonascalethatfarex__ededtheneedsoftrainingstudentsandwasfromtheveryoutsetanoperationdistinctfromteaching.”Attemptsh__ebeen__detoestablishsimilarresearchorganizationsinEuropebutthesewerehamperedbytherigidstructureofEuropeanuniversities.Europeanuniversitiesh__eaclosedsystemofprofessorshipsthatcannotaccommodatescientistswhowanttoconductresearch.Asnumberofspecializedresearchinstitutesh__ebeenestablishedoutsidetheuniversitiesbutmoreisasextensiveorasinfluentialastheresearchinstitutesassociatedwithAmericanuniversities.Inthe1950sduringtheColdWartherewaswidespreadrecognitionthattheUnitedStatesneededtoimproveitsscientificresearchcapacity.Asaresultgover__entanduniversitiesbegancooperatingevenmorecloselythantheyhadbefore.Oneconsequen__ofthisunplannedgrowthofscientificorganizationsinuniversitiesgover__entthemilitaryandtheprivatesectorBellconcludesisthatitbecameimpossibletocreateasinglesetofpoliticsforthesupportofscien__.Thevariousorganizationsmustcompeteforresour__sandarevulnerabletochangingnationalneedsaswellasnewde__ndsforscientificknowledgebybusinessandindustry.Thisaddstothecomplexityandcompetitivenessofscientificinstitutions.Theseaspectsofscientificinstitutions__yalsoexplaintheircontinuingdifferentiationintheUnitedStatesandotherWesternnations.ForexamplethedepartmentalstructureofAmericancollegesanduniversitieshasbeenshowntoencouragethegrowthofnewdisciplines.Interdisciplinaryprogramsandnewfieldsofstudycanbesponsoredbyexistingdepartmentsuntiltheycancompeteforsupportasindependentdisciplines.Anexampleisthedevelopmentofstatisticsasaseparatefieldofstudy.Originallyabranchof__the__ticsstatisticshasbeenstu___dandtaughtby__the__ticiansandphysicistsinEuropeandGreatBritainsin__theseventeenth__ntury.IntheUnitedStateshoweverdepartmentsofbiologyeducationpsychologyeconomicsandotherfieldse.g.demographydevelopedspecialtiesinstatistics.Eventuallyseparatedepartmentsofstatisticswereestablished.Insumsin__itsoriginsintheindependentandoftensecretiveexperimentsofphilosophersandclericsscientificresearchhasbecomeinstitutionalizedincomplexorganizations.Yetwewillseethatthepro__ssofdifferentiationthroughwhichscien__becomesaninstitutionseparatefromothersisnevercomplete.Theworkofscientistsmustbepaidforandthemoretheirresearchis“pure”inthatithasnoapparentusesthatgenerateprofitsthemoreitmustbesupportedbyotherinstitutionslikegover__entorindustrythisdependen__ofscien__onotherinstitutionscontinuallysu__ectsscientiststopressureto__ketheirworkrelevanttotheneedsofbusinessorthemilitary.Conflictbetweenscientistsandtheirsponsorsthushasbeenafeatureofscien__sin__itsorigins.Tounderstandthatconflictmorefullywewilltakeamoredetailedlookatthenormsofscientificinstitutions.
2.15TheNormsofScien__Wesawthateverysocialinstitutiondevelopsnormsthatspecifyhowitsspecialfunctionsaretobecarriedout.Thisisreadilyillustratedbytheinstitutionsofscien__.Thefunctionofthoseinstitutionsistoextendknowledgebymeansofaspecificsetofpro__duresi.e.thescientificmethod.Thenormsofscien__arederivedfromthatfunction.Universali__Oneofthebasicnormsofscientificinstitutionsisuniversali__:Thetruthofscientificknowledgemustbedeterminedbytheimpersonalcriteriaofthescientificmethodnotbycriteriarelatedtora__nationalityreligionsocialclassorpoliticalideology.Thiswouldseemtobeself-evidentuntiloneremembersthatinternationalrivalriesh__ebeenpartofthehistoryofscien__sin__theRenaissan__.AndconsiderthecaseoftheRussiangeneticsTrofimD.Lysenkowhoonthebasisofsomeextremelyunscientificresearchonplantgeneticsclaimedthatacquiredcharacteristicsofplantscouldbeinheritedbythenextgeneration.ThisclaimseemedtoofferhopeforimprovementoftheSovietUnion’sfalteringagriculturalproduction.ItalsofitwellwithSovietideologywhichheldthatbetterhu__nbeingscouldbecreatedthroughadheren__totheidealsoftherevolution.ToStalinandhisadvisersscien__seemedtoh__eprovedthevalueoftheSovietcultureandsocialsystem.LysenkowasgrantedavirtualdictatorshipoverbiologicalresearchintheSovietUnionandhundredsofgeneticistslosttheirjobs.LysenkowasdeposedduringtheKhrushcheverabuttheda__gedonetoSovietagricultureandbiologicalresearchinthenameofideologylasted__nyyearslonger.CommonOwnershipAnothernormofscien__iscommonownershipofscientificfindings.Thosefindingsarearesultofcollaborationandhen__arenotthepropertyofanyindividualalthoughinsomecasesthey__ybearthenameofthepersonwhofirstpublishedthemasin“Darwin’stheoryofevolution”or“Einstein’stheoryofrelativity”.Oneoutcomeofthisnormisfrequentconflictsoverscientificpriority—thatisoverwhowasthefirsttodiscoverorpublishaparticularitemofscientificknowledge.ThusthereiscontinualcontroversyoverwhodiscoveredthedifferentialcalculusNewtonorLeibnizbuttherearenolimitationsontheuseofthatcalculus.Afurtherconsequen__ofthenormofcommonownershipisthenormofpublication—therequirementoffullandopencommunicationofscientificfindingsinjournalsac__ssibletoall.Secrecyisoutofpla__inscien__.Howeverbecausescientificresearchissooftenconductedintheinterestsofnationaldefenseorunderthesponsorshipofprivatefirmsthathopetoprofitfromapplicationsofthefindingsthenormsofcommonownershipandpublicationareoftensuspended.Suchsituationsh__eledtoinnumerableconflictsinscientificcircles.AnoutstandingexampleisthecaseofJ.RobertOppenheimer’ssympathyleadersinthedevelopmentoftheatomicbombduringWorldWarII.AlthoughOppenheimer’ssympathyfor__rtainradicalcauseswerewellknownhewasgivenafullsecurityclearan__bothduringandafterthewarwhenhecontinuedhispioneeringresearchontheapplicationsofnuclearphysics.Butwhenhepubliclystatedhissupportofinternationalsharingoffindingsinnuclearphysicsandopposedthedevelopmentofanuclearbombhisopponentsbroughtuptheoldchargethathewasasubversiveandcouldnotbetrustedwithscientificsecrets.In1953PresidentDwightD.EisenhowerruledthatOppenheimerwastobedeniedac__sstosecretscientificinfor__tionwhichmeantthathewouldalsobedeniedac__sstothelaboratorieswherethemostimportantresearchinnuclearphysicswasbeingconducted.DisinterestednessAfurthernormofscientificinstitutionsisdisinterestedness.Thescientistdoesnotallowthedesireforpersonalgaintoinfluen__thereportingandevaluationofresult;fraudandirresponsibleclaimsareoutlawed.Infactmorethanmostotheractivitiesscientificresearchissu__ecttothescrutinyofothers.Thisispartofthenatureofthatresearchwhichinvolvesthesearchforresultsthatcanbeverified;inotherwordsscien__isinasenseself-policing.Thenormofdisinterestednessdoesnotimplythatscientistscannothopetoprofitfromtheirfindingsandthereare__nyinstan__sinwhichscientistsh__eheldlucrativepatentsfortheirdiscoveries.Butitdoesimplythatrelatednormsofscientificresearchsuchasunbiasedobservationandthoroughnessinreportingfindingsmusttakepre__den__overanyselfishmotives.Sociologistsarecon__rnedthatthepressureonscientiststo__kediscoveriesthatwillearnlargesumsofmoneywillda__gethecredibilityofscientificinstitutions.Thetrendtowardpartnershipsbetweenprivatecorporationsandscientificinstitutions__yalsoputpressureonscientiststoviolatescientificnorms.Re__ntlyforexampletheMonsantoChemicalCorporationg__e$
23.5milliontoWashingtonUniversityforbiologicalresearchandaWestGer__nphar____uticalcompanyinvested$40millioninresearchatHarvardMedicalSchool.DorothyNelkinoneofthenation’sleadingexpertsonscientificpolicywarnsthatwhenbusinessesformallian__swithuniversitiestoconductresearchinsucharrearsasbiologicaltechnologiesthescientistsinvolvedmustkeeptheirfindingssecretuntilpatentsh__ebeenappliedfor.Nelkinconcludessuchsecrecy“violatesthesocialnatureofscien__theideathatscien__issharedthatit’scumulativeactivity.”SimilarlywhenchemistsatuniversitiesinUtahandGreatBritainannoun__din19__thattheircollaborationhadachieved“coldfusion”theproductionofenergythroughthefusionofhydrogenatomsatlowtemperaturesareactionthatscientistsbelieverequiresextremelyhightemperaturesitappearedthataneweraoflow-costenergymightbeonthehorizon.Butotherscientistswerehighlyskeptical.Theso-calleddiscoverieshadnotbeenpublishedinscientificjournalspriortotheirannoun__menttothepress—aviolationofthenormofpublication.Thecold-fusionapparatuswasalsokeptsecretforatimesothatthescientistsandtheiruniversitiescouldapplyforpatentsandenlistthesupportof__jorcorporationsforfurtherresearch.Theseactions__descientistssuspicious.Beforetoolongtheresultswerefoundtobeincorrectanoutcomeperhapsoftoomuchhopesforprofitandnotenoughcarefulmeasurement.Thenormsweh__ejustdescribedarewell-establishedaspectsofmodernscien__whichisincreasinglydifferentiatedfromotherinstitutionsparticularlyreligionandthestate.Butscien__wasnotalwaysviewedasalegiti__teinstitutionorarespectableoccupation.Infactearlyinitshistoryscien__wasoftenregardedasadangerousactivitywiththepotentialtothreatentheexistingsocialorder.ThiscanbeseenquiteclearlyintherepressionofGalileobytheInquisition.
2.16TechnologyinModernSocietiesWenotedearlierthatasignificantaspectofmodernscien__isitscontributiontotherapidpa__oftechnologicalchange.Thetechnologiesprodu__dbyscientificresearchareappliedtoallaspectsofhu__nlifeandhen__area__jorfor__onshapingandchangingotherinstitutionsinadditiontoscientificinstitutionsthemselves.Anexampleistheimpactoftechnologicalchangeontheinstitutionsof__sscommunication.Theadventofradioandthentelevisiondra__ticallychangedthewaysinwhichsocialandculturalvaluesaretran__ittedtovariousgroupsinsociety.Wenoteotherexamplesoftheimpactoftechnologyinthefollowingpages.Butfirstitisne__ssarytoenlargeourunderstandingofwhatismeantbythetermtechnology.Technologyismorethantoolsandskills;waysoforganizingworkarealsopartoftechnology.Technologyhasthreedimensionswhich__ybesum__rizedasfollows:
1.Technologicaltoolsinstrument__chinesgadgetswhichareusedinaccomplishingavarietyoftasks.These__terialo__ectsarebestreferredtoasapparatusthephysicaldevi__softechnicalperfor__n__.
2.Thebodyoftechnicalskillspro__duresroutines—allactivitiesorbeh__iorsthatemployapurposivestep-by-steprationalmethodofdoingthings.
3.Theorganizationalnetworksassociatedwithactivitiesandapparatus.Thelastofthesedimensions__ybeclarifiedbyanexample.Organizationalnetworksaresetsofstatusesandroles.Alltechnologiesestablishormodifysuchnetworks.Thustheautomobileownerispartofanetworkthatincludesdealersmechanicspartssuppliersinsurersli__nsingagentsandjunkyardowners.Ourgreat-great-grandparentswereprobablypartofanetworkofhorsedealersharness__kersbuggysuppliersandblack__ithsanetworkthathasbeenlargelyeliminatedbytheadventofmotorizedvehicles.Technologicalchangecanoccurinanyorallofthedimensionsjustlisted.Themostfar-reachingchangesinvolveallthreeespeciallythethird.Forexampletheindustrialrevolutioncompletelychangedtheorganizationofeconomicinstitutionsandalsohadsignificanteffectsonotherinstitutionssuchasthefamily.Likewisetheinternal-combustionenginewhich__depossiblethedevelopmentoftheautomobilehascompletelytransformedtheecologyofNorthAmerica.Ontheotherhandsometechnologicalchangesarelimitedtomodificationsintheapparatusortechnicalskillsneededforaparticulartaskthesurgicalstaplerisanexampleanddonotaffectlargenumbersofpeopleorh__e__jorsocialimpacts.Notonlydotechnologicalchangesaffectvariousgroupsandinstitutionswithinasocietyandsometimestransformasocietybuttechnologyitselfisaffectedbythesocialconditionsprevailingatanygiventime.Theac__ptan__ofaparticulartechnologicalinnovation__ydependonpriorchangesinotheraspectsofasociety.Thustelevisionmightnoth__ehadasgreatanimpactifithadbeeninventedinthenineteenth__nturywhenworkingpeoplehadfarlessleisuretimethantheydotoday.Otherinnovationsh__efailedtogainac__ptan__becausetheyappearedtoosoon.AnexampleistheSonyCorporation’sunsuc__ssfulattempttointrodu__taperecordersinJapanin
1950.Japaneseconsumersdidnotper__iveaneedoruseforthemandtheywentunsold.Muchthesamethingishappeningtodayinthecaseofhomecomputers.On__thethrillofcomputergameswearsoffthecomputeroftenstandsidlebecausethe__eragehouseholdhasnootherusesforit.Inconsequen__thehomecomputerindustryiscontinuallysearchingfornewsoftwaretoextendtheapplicationsofhomecomputersashasalreadybeendoneinthecaseofcomputersforoffi__use.
2.17GalileoandtheInquisitionThefirstpersontouseatelescopetostudytheskieswasGalileoGalileianItalian__the__ticianwholivedfrom1564to
1642.hisobservationsconvin__dhimthattheearthrevolvedaroundthesun.uptothattimeithadbeentakenforgrantedthattheearthwasthe__nteroftheuniverseandthisbeliefwasstronglyentrenchedinthedoctrinesoftheCatholicchurch.Galileo’sviewsweresoradicalthathewastriedbytheInquisitionorderedtodenywhatheknewtobethetruthandfor__dtospendthelasteightyearsofhislifeunderhousearrest.Galileo’sfateillustratesaprincipleweh__ementionedatnumerouspointsinthisbook:Associetiesbecomemorecomplexthepro__sstermeddifferentiationremovesvariousfunctionsfromexistinginstitutionsandcreatesnewinstitutionstoperformthem.GalileowastriedbytheInquisitionbecauseinhistimescien__hadnotyetbecomedifferentiatedfromphilosophyandreligion.Ascientistmustonnoaccountdiscoveranythingthatcontradictedthedoctrinesofthechurch.InhisplayGalileoBertoltBrechtpaintedavividpictureoftheconstraintspla__donGalileobythesituationofscien__inhisday.AnassistanthasdeliveredagiftfromtheCourtofNaples—amodeloftheskyaccordingtothewisemenofancientGreece—andhasaskedhimtoexplainit.“Youseethefixedballinthemiddle”saysGalileo.“That’stheearth.Fortwothousandyears__nhaschosentobelievethatthesunandallthehostofstarsrevolveabouthim.Well.Thepopesthecardinalstheprin__sthescholarscaptainsmerchantshousewivesh__epicturedthemselvessquattinginthemiddleofanaffairlikethat.Galileogoesontopredictthatbeforelongpeople“willbelearningthattheearthrollsroundthesunandthattheirmothersthecaptainsthescholarstheprin__sandthepopearerollingwithit.”Theassistantisnotconvin__dbutheadmitsthathehasmentionedGalileo’sideastohismotherGalileo’shousekeeper.ThehousekeepersaystoGalileo“Lastnightmysontriedto____methattheearthgoesroundthesun.You’llsoonh__ehimsayingthattwotimestwoisfive.”LaterGalileosaystotheassistant“AndreaIwouldn’ttalkaboutourideasoutside.”“Whynot”asksAndrea.“__rtainoftheauthoritieswon’tlikeit”repliesGalileo.Hisassistantisconfirmedbyafriend:“Howcanpeopleinpowerle__ea__natlargewho____sthetruthevenifitbethetruthaboutthedistantstars”Todayscientistsarestudyingsubatomicparticlescalledquarks.Theyh__eproposedthatdinosaurshadfeathersratherthanscalesandtheyh__esuggestedthattheuniversebeganwithabigbangandthatstarseventuallybecomeblackholes.Theyh__ediscoveredthepro__ssbywhichthecontinentswereformedandthestructureofhu__ngenesinnoneofthesecasesh__ethefindingsbeenchallengedby“theauthorities”religiousorotherwise.Rathertheyh__ebeenjudgedbythestandardsofscientificinvestigationoneofthefunctionsoftheinstitutionthatwecallscien__.Butthepro__ssofdifferentiationisnevercomplete.Inre__ntyearstheancienttensionbetweenscien__andreligionhastakenanewturn:thescientifictheoryofevolutionhasbeenchallengedbyfundamentalistreligiousgroupsbecauseitcontradictsstatementsintheBible.Thesegroupsh__epressuredpublisherstodeletediscussionsofevolutionfromtextbooksoratleasttomention“creationscien__”aswellasevolution.Althoughtheireffortsh__ehadlimitedsuc__sstheyh__enotbeenignored.
2.18TechnologyandPeopleInthisageofauto__tion__nypeoplecomplainthathu__nsarebecomingsubservientto__chines.Inmypointofviewinsomerespectshu__nsserve__chineswhileinotherrespects__chinesserveusbyenhancingourlives.Whilemechanicalauto__tion__yh__ediminishedourqualityoflifeonbalan__digitalauto__tionisdoingmoretoimproveourlivesthantoundermineourautonomy.Considerfirstmechanicalauto__tionparticularlyassembly-line__nufacturing.Withauto__tioncamealossofprideinandalienationfromone’swork.Inthissenseauto__tionbothdiminishedourqualityoflifeandrenderedussl__esto__chinesinourinabilitytoreverse“progress.”Admittedlymechanicalauto__tionspawnedentireindustriescreatingjobsstimulatingeconomicgrowthandsupplyingaplethoraofinnovativeconvenien__s.Neverthelessthesociologicalandenviro__entalpri__ofprogress__yh__eoutweigheditsbenefits.Digitalauto__tionhasbroughtitsownbrandofalienation.Computerauto__tionandespeciallytheInternetbreedsinfor__tionoverloadandstealsourtimeandattentionawayfromfamilycommunityandcoworkers.Intheserespectsdigitalauto__tiontendstodiminishourqualityoflifeandcreateitsownlegionofhu__nsl__es.Ontheotherhandbyrelegatingrepetitivetaskstocomputersdigitaltechnologyhasspawnedgreatadvan__sinmedicineandphysicshelpingustobetterunderstandtheworldtoenhan__ourhealthandtoprolongourlives.Digitalauto__tionhasalsoe__ncipatedarchitectsartistsdesignersandmusiciansbyopeningupcreativepossibilitiesandbys__ingtime.Perhapsmostimportanthoweverinfor__tiontechnology__kerspossibleuniversalac__sstoinfor__tiontherebyprovidingademocratizinginfluen__onourculture.Insumwhilemechanicalauto__tion__yh__ecreatedasocietyofsl__estomodernconvenien__sandunfulfillingworkdigitalauto__tionholdsmorepromiseforimprovingourliveswithoutensl__ingustothetechnology.
3.SectionThree:Ideas
3.1CriticalThinkingCriticalthinkingisapathtoin____ectualadventure.Thoughtherearedozensofpossibleapproachesthepro__sscanbeboileddowntoconcretesteps.Thisarticleofferssomestartingpointsforyourjourney.
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1.1Bewillingtosay“Idon’tknow”Someofthemostprofoundthinkersofourtimeh__epracti__dtheartofcriticalthinkingbyusingtwo__gicphrases:Idon’tknowandI’mnotsureyet.Thosearewords__nypeopledonotliketohear.Weliveintimeswhenpeoplearecriticizedforchangingtheirminds.Oursocietyrewardsquickanswersandquotable“soundbites.”We’reunderconsiderablepressuretoutterthetruthin15secondsorless.Insuchasocietyitisacourageousandunusualacttopausetolooktoexaminetobethoughtfultoconsider__nypointsofview—andtonotknow.Whenasocietyembra__shalf-truthsinablindrushfor__rtaintycommitmenttoun__rtaintycanmoveusforward.Thiswillingnesstogiveup__rtaintycanbehardesttoac__ptwhenitcomestonotionsthatseemobvious.“__nythingsare__rtain”somepeoplesay.“Forexampleit’sobviousthattwoplustwoequalsfour.”Thinkagain.Whenweusethebase-threenumbersystemtwoplustwoequals
11.Achildlearningtowritenumeralsmightinsistthattwoandtwo__kes
22.Andabiologistmightjokethattwoplustwoaddsuptoawholelotmorethanfourwhenwe’retalkingaboutthereproductivelifeofrabbits.Evenscientificknowledgeisnot__rtain.Atamoment’snoti__theworldcandeviatefromwhatwecall“laws”ofnature.Thoselawsexistinsideourheads—notintheworld.What’smoremodernscien______sus__nythingsthatcontradicteveryday__rtainties.Forexamplephysicspresentsuswithaworldwheresolido__ectsare__deofatomsspinningaroundinemptyspa__where__tterandenergyaretwoformsofthesamething.Evenin__the__ticsandthe“hard”scien__sthegreatestadvan__stakepla__whenage-oldbeliefsarereexamined.
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1.2DefineyourtermsI__giningtwopeoplearguingaboutwhetheranemployershouldextendfamilyhealthcarebenefitstopeoplewholivetogetherbutareun__rried.Toonepersonthewordfamilymeansamotherfatherandchildren.Theotherpersonappliesthewordfamilytoanylong-termsupportiverelationshipsbetweenpeoplewholivetogether.Chan__sarethedebatewillgonowhereuntilthesepeoplerealizethey’redefiningthesamewordindifferentways.Muchopinionconflictcanberesolved—oratleastclarified—whenwedefineourkeytermsupfront.Thisisespeciallytruewithabstractemotion-ladentermssuchas_______pea__progressorjusti__s.Bloodhasbeenshedoverthemeaningofthesewords.Itpaysforustodefinethemwithcare.
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1.3Practi__toleran__H__ingopinionsaboutissuesisnatural.Whenyoustoph__ingopinionsyou’reprobablynotbreathinganymore.Theproblemcomeswhenweholdopinionsinawaythatleadstodefensivenessput-downorput-offs.Goinghandinhandwithcriticalthinkingistoleran__forattitudesthatdifferfromyours.Considerthat__nyoftheideaswecurrentlyac__pt—democracyChristianityvotingrightsforwomencivilrightsforpeopleofcolor—wereon__consideredtheclaimsof“dangerous”andunpopularminorities.Thishistoricalperspectivehelpsusac__ptatenetofcriticalthinking:Whatseemsoutlandishtoday__ybecomewidelyac__pteda__nturyadecadeorevenayearfromnow.
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1.4UnderstandbeforecriticizingWhenencounteringanynewviewpointwe’reobligatedtoagree.Evensocriticalthinkingde__ndsthatwetakethetimetounderstandanideabeforerejectingormodifyingit.One__rkofskilleddebatersisthattheycansumuptheviewpointstheydisagreewith—oftenbetterthanthepeoplewhoholdthoseviewpointscan.Strictlyspeakingnoneofuslivesinthesameworld.Ourhabitspreferen__soutlooksandvaluesareasindividualasourfingerprints.Eachofthemisshapedbyourcultureourupbringingourexperien__sandourchoi__s.Speechesbooksarticlesworksofarttelevisionprogramsviewsexpressedinconversation—allcomefrompeoplewhoinhabitadifferentworldthanyours.Untilwe’relivedinanotherperson’sworldforawhileit’sineffectivetodi__issherpointofview.Thisbasicprincipleis__ntralto__nyprofessions.Physiciansdiagnosebeforetheyprescribe.Lawyersbriefthemselvesontheopponent’scase.Effectiveteachersfindoutwhatastudentalreadyknowsbeforetheyguidehertoideas.Skilledsalespeoplefindoutwhatacustomer’sneedsarebeforetheypresentaproduct.Effectiveunderstandingcallsforlisteningwithoutjudgment.Toenteranotherperson’sworldsumupherviewpointinyourownwords.Ifyou’reconversingwiththatpersonkeeprevisingyoursum__ryuntilsheagreesyou’vestatedherpositionaccurately.Ifyou’rereadinganarticlewriteashortsum__ryofit.Thenscanthearticleagaincheckingtoseeifyoursum__ryisontrack.__nyofusfinditdifficulttofullypermitothersapointofviewthatismuchdifferentfromours.Insteadwecanactually__lebrateotherpeople’sopinionsknowingthatdiversityleadstovaluablenewideas.
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1.5WatchforhotspotsNoti__anyangerordiscomfortyoufeelwhenconversationsshiftto__rtaintopics.Duringapresidentialelectionforinstan__politicsoftenbecomesa“hotspot”—anareainwhichdefensesriseassumptionsrunrampantandtempersquicklyflare.Allthesethingsgetinthewayofthinkingthoroughly.Mostofush__ehotspots.Forsomepeopletheyincludeabortionorhandguncontrol.Otherpeopleheatupwhentheytalkaboutthedeathpenaltyorworldgover__ent.Itpaysforeachofustodiscoverourspecialhotspots.Wecanalso__keaclearintentiontopracti__criticalthinkingwhenweencounterthesetopics.Tocooldownyourhotspotsseekoutthewholeworldofideas.__oidin____ectualruts.Read__gazinesandbooksthatchallengetheopinionsyoucurrentlyhold.IfyouconsideryourselfliberalpickuptheNationalReview.IfyouareasocialistsampletheWallStreetJournal.Dothesamewithradioandtelevisionprograms.__keapointtotalkwithpeoplewhodifferfromyouineducationlevelra__ethnicgrouporpoliticalaffiliation.Andtohoneyourthinkingskillspracti__defendinganideayouconsideroutrageous.
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1.6Considerthesour__Lookagainatthatarticleontheunfeasibilityofcarspoweredbynaturalgas;it__yh__ebeenwrittenbyanexecutivefromanoilcompany.Checkouttheauthoritywhodisputestheconnectionbetween__okingandlungcan__r;thatpersonmightbethepresidentofatobaccocompany.Thisisnottosaythatweshoulddi__isstheideasofpeoplewhoh__eavestedinterestintheiropinions.Ratherwecanseekoutcontrastingviewpointsonthesesissues.
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1.7SeekoutalternativeviewsI__gineKarl__rx__sarCh__ezandDonaldTrumpgatheredinoneroomtochoosethemostdesirableeconomicssystem.PictureGandhiWinnie__ndelaandGeneralGeorgePattoninaseminaronconflictresolution.VisualizeJesseJacksonBillClintonandMotherTheresainadiscussionabouthowtobalan__thenationalbudget.Whenyouseekoutalternativepointsofviewsucheventscantakepla__inyourmind’sarena.Dozensofviewpointexistoneverycriticalissuehowtoredu__crimeendworldhungerpreventwareducateourchildrenandcountlessothers.Infactfewproblemsallowforanyper__nentsolution.Eachgenerationprodu__snewanswersbasedoncurrentconditions.Oursearchforanswersisaconversationthatspans__nturies.Oneachquestion__nyvoi__sarewaitingtobeheard.Youcantakeadvantageofthisdiversitybyseekingoutalternativeviewpoints.
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1.8AskquestionsStrippedtoitsessen__criticalthinkingmeansaskingandansweringquestions.Ifyouwanttopracti__thisskillgetinthehabitofaskingpowerfulquestions.InHowtoReadaBookMortimerAdlerandCharlesVanDorenlistfourquestionsthatsumupthewholetaskofthinkingaboutanotherperson’sideas:
1.WhatisthewritingorspeechaboutasawholeToanswerthisquestionstatethebasicthemeinonesenten__.Thenlistthe__jorandminortopicscovered.
2.WhatisbeingsaidindetailandhowListthe__intermsassertionsarguments.Alsostatewhatproblemsthewriterorspeakeristryingtosolve.
3.IsittrueExaminetheauthor’slogicandeviden__.Lookformissinginfor__tionfaultyinfor__tionincomplete____ysisanderrorsinreasoning.Alsodeterminewhichproblemsthewriterorspeakertrulysolvedandwhichre__inunsolved.
4.WhatofitAfteransweringthefirstthreequestionspreparetochangeyourthinkingorbeh__iorasaresultofencounteringnewideas.Thesefourquestionsapplynotonlytoreadingbutalsotoanyin____ectualactivity.Theygettotheheartofcriticalthinking.
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1.9LookforatleastthreeanswersWhenaskingquestionswecanletgoofthetemptationtosettleforjustoneanswer.On__youh__ecomeupwithananswersaytoyourself.Yesthatisoneanswer.Nowwhat’sanotherUsingthisapproachcansustainhonestinquiryfuelcreativityandleadtocon__ptualbreakthroughs.Beprepared:Theworldiscomplicatedandcriticalthinkingisacomplexbusiness.Someofyouranswers__ycontradicteachother.Resistthetemptationtoh__eallyourideasinaneatorderlybundle.
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1.10BewillingtochangeyourmindSo__nydiscussionsgenerateheatinsteadoflight.Oftenthepeopleinvolvedcomealreadycommittedto__rtainviewpoints—whichtheyh__enointentionofchanging.Theymightjustaswellstoptalkingtoeachother.Wecan__oidthistrapbyenteringdiscussionwithanopenmind.Whentalkingtoanotherpersoniswillingtowalkawaywithanewpointofview—evenifit’stheoneyoubroughttothetableAfterthinkingthoroughlywecanadoptnewviewpointsorholdourcurrentviewpointsinadifferentway.
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1.11LayyourcardsonthetableScien__anduncriticalthinkingdifferin__nyways.Uncriticalthinkersshieldthemselvesfromnewinfor__tionandideas.Incontrastscientistsconstantlylookforfactsthatcontradicttheirtheories.Infactscien__neverprovesanythingon__andforall.Scientifictheoriesaretentativeandsu__ecttochange.Scientistsroutinelypracti__criticalthinking.Wecanfollowtheirexample.Whentalkingorwritingwecanputallourideasonthetableforexamination.Wecanallowotherstofreelyexamineouropinionsandbeliefs.Whendoingsowe__keroomfornewideasthatcan__kearealdifferen__inourlives.
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1.12ExaminetheproblemfromdifferentpointsofviewI__giningthattwopeoplearestandingacrossfromeachotherbetweenthemsuspendedfromthe__ilingateyelevelisaball.Onepersonarguesthattheballisred.Theotherpersonclaimsthattheballisgreen.Astheyrotatetheirpositionsandchangetheirpointsofviewtheyseethattheballisactuallyredononesideandgreenontheother.Sometimesnewideasarebornwhenweviewtheworldfromanewangle.Whenearlyscientistswatchedtheskiestheyconcludedthatthesunrevolvedaroundtheearth.Laterwhenwegainedthe__the__ticaltoolsto“stand”inanotherpla__wecouldclearlyseethattheearthwasrevolvingaroundthesun.Thischangeinpositionnotonlysparkednewthinkingitper__nentlychangedourpictureoftheuniverse.
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1.13WriteaboutitThoughtsmoverandomlyatblindingspeed.Writingslowsthatpro__ssdown.Gapsinlogicthatslipsbyusinthoughtorspeechareoftenexposedwhenwecommitthesameideastopaper.Doingsoallowsustoseeallpointsofviewonanissuemoreclearlyandthereforetothinkthoroughly.Writingisanunparalleledwaytopracti__preciseaccuratethinking.
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1.14ConstructareasonableviewOnehumoristcomparedfindingthetruthtopaintingabarndoorbythrowingopencansofpaintatit.Fewpeoplewhothrowatthedoormissitentirely.Yetnoonecanreallycoverthewholedoorinonetoss.Peoplewhoexpresstheirviewpointsareseekingtruth.Yetalmostnoreasonablepersonclaimstoh__ecoveredthewholebarndoor—toh__etheWholeTruthaboutanything.Insteadeachviewpointisoneapproachamong__nypossibleapproaches.Ifyoudon’tthinkthatanyoneviewpointiscompletethenit’suptoyoutocombinetheperspectivesontheissues.Indoingsoyouchooseanoriginalviewpoint.Thislikecomposingasongorpaintingapictureisacreativeactandanexhilaratingexerciseincriticalthinking.
3.2TheFunctionofCriticalThinkingAnyorganizationdrawsitslifefrom__rtainassumptionaboutthewaythingshouldbedone.Beforetheinstitutioncanchangethoseassumptionsneedtobelooseneduporreinvented.In__nywaysthereallocationofaninstitutionisinsideourheads.Criticalthinkingalsohelpsusuncoverbiasandprejudi__.Thisisafirststeptowardcommunicatingwithpeopleofotherra__sandcultures.Crisesoccurwhenourthinkingfailstokeeppa__withreality.Anexampleistheecologicalcrisiswhichsprangfromtheassumptionthatpeoplecouldpollutetheearthairandwaterwithoutlong-termconsequen__s.Considerhowdifferentourworldwouldbeifourleadershadthoughtlikethefirstwo__nchiefoftheCherokees.Askedaboutthebestadvi__hereldershadgivenhershesaid“Lookforward.Turnwhathasbeendoneintoabetterpath.Ifyouarealeaderthinkabouttheimpactofyourdecisiononsevengenerationsintothefuture.”NovelistErnestHemingwayon__saidthatanyonewhowantedtobeagreatwritermusth__eabuilt-inshockproofcrapdetector.Thatinelegantcommentpointstoaperennialtruth:Ascriticalthinkerswecanbeconstantlyonthelookoutforthinkingthat’sinaccuratesloppyormisleading.Thisisaskillthatwillnevergooutofstyle.Historyoffersacontinuingstoryofhalf-truthfaultyassumptionsandothernonsenseon__commonlyac__ptedastrue:Bloodsuckingleechescanbeusedtocuredisease.Illnessesresultfromanimbalan__inthefourvitalfluids:bloodphlegmwaterandbile.Racialintegrationofthearmedfor__swillleadtothedestructionofsol___rs’morale.Caucasiansareinherentlymorein____igentthanpeopleofotherra__s.Mixingthebloodofthera__swillleadtogeneticallyinferioroffspring.Womenareincapableofvotingin____igently.Wewillneverinventanything__allerthanatransistor.Thatwasbeforethecomputerchip.Computerswillusherintheageofthepaperlessoffi__.Inresponsetosuchideasrosethecriticalthinkersofhistory.Thesemenandwomencourageouslypointedoutthat—metaphoricallyspeaking—theemperorhadnoclothes.Criticalthinkingisapathto_______fromhalf-truthsandde__ption.Youh__etherighttoquestionwhatyouseehearandread.Acquiringthisabilityisoneofthe__jorgoalsofaliberaleducation.
3.3CriticalThinkingasThoroughThinkingForsomepeoplethetermcriticalthinkinghasnegativeconnotations.Ifyoupreferusethewordsthoroughthinkinginstead.Bothtermspointtothesamearrayofactivities:sortingoutconflictingclaimsweightingtheeviden__forthemlettinggoofpersonalbiasesandarrivingatreasonableviews.Thisaddsuptoanongoingconversationaconstantpracti__spro__ssnotaproduct.Weliveinasocietythatseemstovaluequickanswersand__rtainty.Thisisoftenatoddswitheffectivethinking.Thoroughthinkingistheabilitytoexamineandreexamineideasthat__yseemobvious.Suchthinkingtakestimeandthewillingnesstosaytheresubversivewords:Idon’tknow.Thoroughthinkingisalsothewillingnesstochangeourpointofviewaswecontinuetoexamineaproblem.Thiscallsforcourageanddetachment.Justaskanyonewhohasgivenacherishedpointofviewinlightofneweviden__.Skilledstudentsarethoroughthinkers.Theydistinguishbetweenopinionandfact.Theyaskpowerfulquestions.They__kedetailedobservations.Theyuncoverassumptionsanddefinetheirterms.They__keassertionscarefullybasingthemonsoundlogicandsolideviden__.Almosteverythingthatwecallknowledgeisaresultoftheseactivities.Thismeansthatcriticalthinkingandlearningareinti__telylinked.It’sbeensaidthathu__nbeingsarerationalcreatures.Yetnooneisbornathoroughthinker.Thisisalearnedskill.Usethesuggestionsinthischaptertoclaimthevastlatentthinkingpowersthatareyourbirthright.
3.4CreativepeopleItallstartedinno__ntlyenough.IhadsetouttolearnwhatIcouldaboutcreativity.AndthereIwas:ana__teurwithacauseandthreecolleagues:twopeoplefromtheCorporationforEntertai__entandLearningandmywifeandcoeditorJudithwhoisaneducationalconsultant—alltossedaboutonaturbulentseachurnedbythehigh-horsepowerenginesofscientistsscholarspsychiatristshistorianseducatorssociologistsandphilosopherswhosecareersh__ebeendevotedtoexploringcreativity.Thew__escameoverourlittleboatalmostimmediately.HerewastheveryconsiderablenovelistBernard__lamuddeclaringthat“creativityisacomplexthing…__ybesometimeinthefuturetheyactuallywillfindthegenetictissuethat__kesitwhatitis.Idon’twanttobearoundwhenthathappens.Iwantartisticcreativitytore__inforeveramystery.”OntheotherhandtherewastheauthorGeorgePrin__acknowledgingthatalthoughon__hehadthoughtofcreativityasanextraordinaryactofproducingsomethingnewandusefulnowheseesit“aslessco__icandmorecommonaneverydayaffairamodeofthoughtandactionthatisulti__telyassociatedwithlearningandchangingnotonlyone’sselfbutone’ssituation.”Thereyouh__eit—thebasictensionbetweenthosewhobelievecreativitytobeamysterypossiblyagifttogeniusaloneandthosewhobelieveitcanbedemystifiednurturedevendemocratized.Oneschoolwillh__enothingtodowithtryingtodissectcreativityintoscientificallydefinedvariables.Anotherconsiderscreativitytobetheendowmentofallofus.Actuallytheconflictrepresentnotonlyopposingviewsofcreativitybutalsodifferingideasabouthu__nnature.Twothingsareimpliedintheword“creativity”asIh__ecometounderstandit:noveltyandsignifican__.Whatiscreatedisnewandthenewopensuppathsthatexpandhu__npossibilities.Allcreativebeh__iorbreaksfromthepastbutre__insindebtedtoit.__yaAngelou—poetauthordirectoractress—toldmethatshenever“left”StampsArkansasalthoughshehadmovedfromthelittleSouthwestArkansastown30yearsago:“Youcarryyourhomewhereveryougo”WhenIasked__yaAngeloutogobackwithmetowhereherownas__ntcreativitywasfirstthreatenedandthenforgedshedidnotwanttogo.Butfinallysheagreedandweglimpsedjusthowcreativebeh__iorgrowsfromdeeprootswhichitnevertotallyservesevenasittrans__ndsthem.Thereareotherexamples.Fred__ithwhofoundedFederalExpresshadsomecompellingsenseofdutywhichmotivatedhimfromchildhoodandbecameobsessiveofwhilehewasinVietnam.SamsonRaphaelsontheplaywrightsaysthatthedrivetobecreativehasitsrootsinsomeremotepastnolongeroperatingconsciouslybutstilltherenonetheless.Theinventionsweshallseeareallexamplesofdeparturesfromtraditionbutnonecouldh__eoccurredwithouttradition.Creativepeoplethenoftenlookatsomethingfromthepastthatistheresultofconvergentthinkingandbythinkingaboutitdivergentlycomeupwithanoveluseofafamiliaro__ect.Theylookinthecommonpla__tofindthestrange.Insteadofthinkingtowardoldsolutionstheythinkawayfromthem__kingtheleapfromtheunexpectedtotheinspired.Poetsdoitwithmetaphorsand__iles.Journalistscandoitwithgarbage.Yesgarbage.Itwasthefirstsu__ectwedecidedtoexplorebecausewesensedthatitwouldbeausualvehiclefordemonstratingthatyoucanthinkcreativelyaboutalmostanythingifyoulearnhowtorelateandconnectwhatatcasualglan__seemsoddtocouple.InourresearchwefoundanArizonaprofessoragarbologistteachingcontemporarycivilizationthroughwhatpeoplethrowout;aNewYorkartistturningordinarythingsoffthestreetsintoworksofart;andanEastTexassewageplantwhereearthwormsareusedtoturnsludgeintotopsoil.Werealizedearlyinourreportingthatthere__ybeas__nycreativepro__ssesastherearecreativepeople.Andwedecidedthatanyfullpicturingofcreativitywouldrequire__nyi__ges.HoweverthepeopleImetdidconfirmanumberofcreativebeh__iors.Creativepeopletolerateambiguity.Theyh__eunremittingdesiretocreateasatisfyingneworderoutof____sandthecouragetopersisttocreatethatorderonone’sownterms.This__kesthemoftencantankeroussometimesexasperatingalwaysunconventional.What__tterstothemisnotwhatothersthinkofthembutwhattheythinkofthemselves.
3.5TheLowestAni__lIh__ebeenstudyingthetraitsanddispositionsofthe“lowerani__ls”so-calledandcontrastingthemwiththetraitsanddispositionsof__n.Ifindtheresulthumiliatingtome.Foritobligesmetorenoun__myallegian__totheDarwinianTheoryoftheAs__ntof__nfromtheLowerAni__lssin__itnowseemsplaintomethatthetheoryoughttobevacatedinf__orofanewandtrueronethisnewandtrueronetobenamedtheDes__ntof__nfromtheHigherAni__ls.Inpro__edingtowardthisunpleasantconclusionIh__enotguessedorspeculatedorconjecturedbuth__eusedwhatiscommonlycalledthescientificmethod.Someofmyexperimentswerequitecurious.InthecourseofmyreadingIhadcomeacrossacasewhere__nyyearsagosomehuntersonourGreatPlainsorganizedabuffalohuntfortheentertai__entofanEnglishearlandtoprovidesomefreshmeat.Theykilledseventytwoofthosegreatani__ls;andatepartofoneofthemandlefttheseventyonetorot.Inordertodeterminethedifferen__betweenananacondaandanearl—ifany—Icausedsevenyoungcalvestobeturnedintotheanaconda’scage.Thegratefulreptileimmediatelycrushedoneofthemandswalloweditthenlaybacksatisfied.Itshowednofurtherinterestinthecalvesandnodispositiontoharmthem.Itriedthisexperimentwithotheranacondas;alwayswiththesameresult.Thefactstoodproventhatthedifferen__betweenanearlandananacondaisthattheearliscruelandtheanacondaisn’t;andthattheearlwantonlydestroyswhathehasnouseforbuttheanacondadoesn’t.Thisseemedtosuggestthattheanacondawasnotdes__ndedfromtheearl.Italsoseemedtosuggestthattheearlwasdes__ndedfromtheanacondaandhadlostagooddealinthetransition.Ifurnishedahundreddifferentkindsofwildandtameani__lstheopportunitytoaccumulatevaststoresoffoodbutnoneofthemwoulddoit.Thesquirrelsandbeesand__rtainbirds__deaccumulationsbutstoppedwhentheyhadgatheredawinter’ssupplyandcouldnotbepersuadedtoaddtoit.InordertobolsterupatotteringreputationtheantpretendedtostoreupsuppliesbutIwasnotde__ived.Iknowtheant.Theseexperimentsconvin__dmethatthereisthisdifferen__between__nandthehigherani__ls:heis__ariciousandmiserly—theyarenot.Inthecourseofmyinjuriesbroodsoverthemwaitstillachan__offersthentakesrevenge.Thepassionofrevengeisunknowntothehigherani__ls.Roosterskeepharemsbutitisbyconsentoftheirconcubinesthereforenowrongisdone.Menkeepharemsbutitisbybrutefor__privilegedbyatrociouslawswhichtheother___isallowednohandin__king.Inthis__tter__noccupiesafarlowerpla__thantherooster.Inde__ncyvulgarityobs__nity—thesearestrictlyconfinedto__n;heinventedthem.Amongthehigherani__lsthereisnotra__ofthem.Ofalltheani__ls__nistheonlyonethatiscruel.Heistheonlyonethatinflictspainforthepleasureofdoingit.Itisatraitthatisnotknowntothehigherani__ls.Thecatplayswiththefrightenedmouse;butshehasthisexcusethatshedoesnotknowthatthemouseissuffering.Thecatismoderate—inhu__nlymoderate:sheonlyscaresthemouse:shedoesnothurtit;shedoesn’tdigoutitseyesortearoffitsskinordrivesplintersunderitsnails—__nfashion;whensheisdoneplayingwithitshe__kesasuddenmealofitandputsitoutofitstrouble.__nistheCruelAni__l.Heisaloneinthatdistinction.Thehigherani__lsengageinindividualfightsbutneverinorganized__sses.__nistheonlyani__lthatdealsinthatatrocityofatrocitiesWar.__nistheonlyani__lthatrobshishelplessfellowofhiscountrytakespossessionofitanddriveshimoutofitordestroyshim.__nhasdonethisinalltheages.Thereisnotanacreofgroundontheglobalthatisinpossessionofitsrightfulownerorthathasnotbeentakenawayfromownerafterownercycleaftercyclebyfor__andbloodshed.__nistheonlysl__e.Andheistheonlyani__lwhoensl__es.Hehasalwaysbeenasl__einoneformoranotherandhasalwaysheldothersl__esinbondageunderhiminonewayoranother.Inourdayheisalwayssome__n’ssl__eforwagesanddoesthat__n’swork;andthissl__ehasothersl__esunderhimforminorwagesandtheydohiswork.Thehigherani__lsaretheonlyoneswhoexclusivelydotheirownworkandprovidetheirownliving.__nistheReasoningAni__l.Suchistheclaim.Ithinkitisopentodispute.Indeedmyexperimentsh__eproventomethatheistheUnreasoningAni__l.Notehishistoryassketchedabove.Itseemsplaintomethatwhateverheisheisnotareasoningani__l.Hisrecordisthefantasticrecordofa__niac.Intruth__ninincurablyfoolish.Simplythingswhichtheotherani__lseasilylearnheisincapableoflearning.AndsoIfindthatweh__edes__ndedanddegeneratedfromsomefaran__stor-somemicroscopicatomwanderingatitspleasurebetweenthemightyhorizonsofadropofwaterperchan__—insectbyinsectani__lbyani__lreptilebyreptiledownthelonghighwayof__irchlessinno__n__tillweh__ereachedthebottomstagesofdevelopment—na__bleastheHu__nBeingBelowus—nothing.
3.6DecisionbyConsensusPerhapsthemostfundamentaldifferen__in__nagementstylebetweentheJapaneseandmostothercountriesliesintheareaofdecision-__king.WesternersoftenfindtheJapanesemethodof__kingdecisionstobeaggr__atinglyslow.Fewrealizetheverydifferentthoughtpro__ssesandpro__duresthataregoingon.Westernerstendto__ke__jordecisionsatthetopinboardmeetingsamongdepartmentheadsandthelike.Theythenpasstheworddownthelineto__nagersandotherstoimplementandcarryoutthedecision.TheJapanesedotheopposite.Theirsystemcommonlyknownasringiisthecorporateversionof“gover__entbyconsensus.”Decisionsarenot__de“onhigh”andhandeddowntobeimplemented.Rathertheyareproposedfrombelowandmoveupwardre__ivingadditionalinputandapprovalsafterdeliberationthroughalllevelsofthecompany.“Oneshouldthinkofthesystemasafilterthroughwhichideaspass”saysRobertT.Moran.“Thewholepro__ssasitwindsitswaythroughvariouslevelsofthecompanycanlastfromtwotothreeweekstoa__tterofmonths.Eachleveltakesitsowntimetogooverthedetails.Ifthe__tterunderconsiderationiscomplexorsensitiveitcantakeevenlonger.”Fordecisionsthatarenotofreally__jorimportan__approvalscanbegivenbyvariousindividualsorbygroupsofthem.Butwhenanydecisionisa__tterofgreatimportan__theJapaneselookforbroadconsensus.Ringishouldbeseenasa“pro__ss”ratherthanasystem.Itgives__nagementthechoi__ofabroadselectionofprag__ticoptions.Oftentheinitiatorisasectionchief.Heproposesanideawhich__ywellh__ebeensuggestedtohimbyoneofhisworkers.Hegetshissectionmemberstoresearchit;theyalldiscussit.Whensatisfiedhepassedituptheline.Evenjuniormemberstakepartinallthisdeliberation.Itisconsideredpartoftheirtrainingandasameansofdevelopingtheircompanymotivation.Theideaisconsideredallthewayupuntilitreachesthepresident.Ifheapprovesititwillh__ebeenseenconsideredandpassedonbyvirtuallyeveryonewhocouldbeinanywayinvolvedinthefinalimplementation.Onecani__ginethebargainingpersuasiontradingoff__orsseekingofsupportandgeneral“lobbying”thatgoesonthroughoutthepro__ss!Allofthisisknownasne__washiwhichmeans‘bindinguptheroots.’Thei__geisthatofatreethatwillsurviveonlyifeverythingisproperlypreparedinadvan__.Oneofthe__jorbenefitsofringiisthat__oidsthepossibilityofanyonebeing__rkedas“personallyresponsible”foradecision.Whereresponsibilitycanbediffusedpotentiallyembarrassing“lossoffa__”canbe__oided.Nofingerscanbepointed.“Delaysin__kingeven______decisionscanbecomealmostunbearableattimes”saidafast-movingAmericanexecutivewhoworkswithaworldwidehotelchain.“Everybodyhastobeinvolvedwitheverything”hecontinued.“Ittakesforever.AsfarasIamcon__rnedthisiswithoutadoubttheveryhardestpartofworkingforaJapanesecompany.Youfeelasifyoucannevergetadecisiononanythinglargeor__all.”“Bythetimethedecisionfinallydoescomethrough”addedanother“Ih__eusuallylostinterestinwhateveritwasandamontosomethingelse.Interminabledelaysaredeflatingtoone’ssenseofenergyanddrive.”Ifyoutrytohurrythepro__ssitdoesmorethanharmthangood.TheJapanesedonotlikepressure.ObviouslyfrustratedWesternerswillbeitchingtoknowwhatisgoingonasthesilen__goesintoweeksormonths.Yousubmitaproposaloraninquiry.Nothinghappens.WhoisholdingitupWhatishappeningDidthemessageevergetthroughIfthedecisionyouareimpatientforrelatestoanewideaperhapssomethingyouh__einitiatedyoucancountonareallylongdelay.Ifontheotherhandthecompanyismerelytalkingaboutsomerefinementofanideatheyh__ealreadyagreedtoinprinciplethenit__ytakeconsiderablylesstimetocomeupwithareply.Butyoucantakeitforgrantedthatyouwillrarelygetquickactionunlessasoneveteranofthebusinessworldputit‘Youh__egoldthatis$
7.00ontheopen__rketandarewillingtosellitfor$
6.
00.Thenyouwillgetactionwithoutdelay.”You__yoccasionallyencounterJapanesewhowilltrytoforeshortentheirnor__ltimeasacon__ssiontoWesternimpatien__.Butyoudon’tcountonit.InwritingthisbookIaskedanumberofbusines__enwhoworkwellwithJapanesecolleagueswhattheyconsidertobethesinglebiggestfactorintheirsuc__ss.Ineverysinglecasethefirstattributementionedwas“patien__patien__andstillmorepatien__.”Theyallagreed:“ifyouloseyourpatien__orloseyourcoolyouarelikelytofindyourselfempty-handed.”Althoughtheringisystemisundoubtedlyslownoonecancomplainafterwards.Harmonyisservedfactionali__andpowerstrugglesareatleastminimized—ifnoteliminated—foron__thepro__sshasreacheda__rtainstagenoonefeelshecan“buckthetide.”Sohegoesalongwithitandinitialsit.Afterthatheiseffectivelysilen__d.DirectoppositionisrarelyeffectiveamongtheJapanese.Oneachievesmorewiththemthroughthekindofpersuasionandnegotiating-onemightsay“lobbying”—thatissanctionedand__debroadlypossiblethroughne__washi.Actuallythelengthofdelaybeforeachievingtheulti__tegoal__ynotbeasgreatasitsometimesappearswhencomparedwithWesternsystems.WheretheWestern“top-down”approachtodecision—__kingisusedtheoriginalplanoragreementisfrequently__derelativelyquicklyatthetopintheboardroom.Howeverdelaysofweeksormonths__ysubsequentlyfollowwhilestaffsandworkersarefirstapprisedofthedecisionsandthenpersuadedtogivetheircooperativesupport.Bothstepsarene__ssarybeforeaplancanactuallygetmovingwithanymomentum.Whenlowerlevelsh__enotparticipatedin__kingthedecisionmisunderstandingssnagsbalksorotherdelaysfrequentlyoccur.InJapanincontraston__thedecisionisfinallyandactuallyarrivedatallrelevantstaffmembersunderstanditthoroughly.Theyarefamiliarwithitsvariousramifications.Duringthetalkingstagestheywillh__eprettywell__steredthe“what-when-how”oftheirownresponsibilitiesvis-à-vistheprojectinquestion.Soalthoughit__ytakealongtimetoarriveatthedecisionon__approvalhasbeengiventheycanputitintopracti__rapidlyand__oothly.Thefinaltimedifferen__betweenthetwosystemstherefore__ynotbeasfarapartasitcansometimesseem.FurthermoreintheJapanesesystemthoseinlowechelonsfeeltheyh__ebeeninvolved.Theyh__ebeenable—oftenurged—tosuggestproposalsprojectsorrefinements.Japanesebossesbelieveinencouragingsuggestionsfromtherankandfile.TheideaofcreatingaconsensusthatincorporatesthewholeorganizationalhierarchyisattheheartofJapanesebusinessphilosophyandmethods.
4.SectionFour:__ssMedia
4.1PropagandaTechniquesinToday’sAdvertisingPropagandaisnotjustthetooloftotalitariangover__entsanddictators.Ratherpropagandaisallaroundus—intheformofcommercialsandadvertisements.Theauthorofthisselectionshowshow__dison__enueuses__nyofthetechniquestypicalofpoliticalpropagandatoconvin__usthatweneed__rtainproductsandservi__s.Afterreadingtheessayyou__yregardinadifferentlightthe___glesendorsementsandsloganscharacteristicoftoday’scommercials.Americans_____sandchildrenalikearebeingsedu__d.Theyarebeingbrainwashed.Andfewofusprotest.WhyBecausethesedu__rsandthebrainwashersaretheadvertiserswewillinglyinviteintoourhomes.Wearevictimscontent—eveneager—tobevictimized.Wereadadvertisers’propagandamessageinnewspapersand__gazines;wewatchtheiralluringi__gesontelevision.Weabsorbtheirmessagesandi__gesintooursubconscious.Wealldoit—eventhoseofuswhoclaimtoseethroughadvertisers’tricksandthereforefeelimmunetoadvertising’scharm.Advertisersleanhe__ilyonpropagandatoselltheirproductswhetherthe“products”areabrandoftoothpasteacandidateforoffi__oraparticularpoliticalviewpoint.Propagandaisasyste__ticefforttoinfluen__people’sopinionstowinthemovertoa__rtainvieworside.Propagandaisnotne__ssarilycon__rnedwithwhatistrueorfalsegoodorbad.Propagandistssimplywantpeopletobelievethemessagesbeingsent.Oftenpropagandistswilluseoutrightliesormoresubtlede__ptionstoswaypeople’sopinions.Inapropagandawaranytacticisconsideredfair.Whenweheartheword“propaganda”weusuallythinkofaforeignmena__:anti-Americanradioprogramsbroadcastbyatotalitarianregimeorbrainwashingtacticspracti__donhostages.Althoughpropaganda__yseemrelevantonlyinthepoliticalarenathecon__ptcanbeappliedfruitfullytothewayproductsandideasaresoldinadvertising.Indeedthevast__jorityofusaretargetsinadvertisers’propagandawar.Everydaywearebombardedwithslogansprintadscommercialspackagingclaimsbillboardstrade__rkslogosanddesignerbrands-allformsofpropaganda.Onestudyreportsthateachofusduringan__eragedayisexposedtooverfivehundredadvertisingclaimsofvarioustypes.Thissaturation__yevenincreaseinthefuturesin__currenttrendsincludeadsonmoviescreensshoppingcartsvideocassettesevenpublictelevision.WhatkindofpropagandatechniquesdoadvertisersuseTherearesevenbasictypes:
1.NameCallingNamecallingisapropagandatacticinwhichnegativelychargednamesarehurledagainsttheopposingsideorcompe_____.Byusingsuchnamespropagandiststrytoarousefeelingsofmistrustfearandhateintheirau___n__s.Forexampleapoliticaladvertisement__ylabelanopposingcandidatea“loser”“fen__-sitter”or“warmonger”.Dependingontheadvertiser’starget__rketlabelssuchas“afriendofbigbusiness”or“adues-payingmemberofthe_____inpower”canbetheepithetsthatda__geanopponent.Adsforproducts__yalsousenamecalling.AnAmericanlabelofforeignnesswillh__eunpleasantconnotationin__nypeople’sminds.Achildhoodrhymeclaimsthat“namecanneverhurtme”butnamecallingisaneffectivewaytoda__getheoppositionwhetheritisanothercar__keror2congressionalcandidates.
2.GlitteringGeneralitiesusingglitteringgeneralitiesistheoppositeofnamecalling.Inthiscaseadvertiserssurroundtheirproductswithattractive—andslippery—wordsandphrases.Theyusevaguetermsthataredifficulttodefineandthat__yh__edifferentmeaningstodifferentpeople:_______democraticall-AmericanprogressiveChristianandjusti__.__nysuchwordsh__estrongaffir__tiveovertones.Thiskindoflanguagesstirspositivefeelingsinpeoplefeelingsthat__yspillovertotheproductorideabeingpitched.Aswithnamecallingtheemotionalresponse__yoverwhelmlogic.Targetau___n__sac__pttheproductwithoutthinkingverymuchaboutwhattheglitteringgeneralitiesmean—orwhethertheyevenapplytotheproduct.Afterallhowcananyoneoppose“truthjusti__andtheAmericanway”Theadsforpoliticiansandpoliticalcausesoftenuseglitteringgeneralitiesbecausesuch“buzzwords”caninfluen__votes.Electionslogansincludehigh-soundingbutbasicallyemptyphraseslikethefollowing:“Hecaresaboutpeople.”That’sni__butisheabettercandidatethanhisopponent“Voteforprogress.”Progressbywhosestandards“They’ll__kethiscountrygreatagain.”Whatdoes“great”meanDoes“great”meanthesamethingtoothersasitdoestome“Voteforthefuture.”Whatkindoffuture“IfyouloveAmericanthenvoteforPhyllis__ith.”IfIdon’tvotefor__ithdoesthatmeanIdon’tloveAmericanAdsforconsumergoodsarealsosprinkledwithglitteringgeneralities.Productnamesforinstan__aresupposedtoevokegoodfeelings:LuvsdiapersNew_______femininehygieneproductsjoyliquiddetergentLovingCarehaircolorAlmostHomecookiesandYankeeDoodlepastries.Productslogansleanhe__ilyonvaguebutcomfortingphrases:Kinneyis“TheGreatAmericanShoeStore”GeneralElectric“bringsgoodthingstolife”andDowChemical“letsyoudogreatthings.”Chevroletwearetoldisthe“heartbeatofAmerica”andChryslerboastscarsthatare“builtbyAmericansforAmericans.”
3.TransfersIntransferadvertiserstrytoimprovethei__geofaproductbyassociatingitwithasymbolmostpeoplerespectliketheAmericanflagorUncleSam.Theadvertisershopethattheprestigeattachedtothesymbolwillcarryovertotheproduct.__nycompaniesusetransferdevi__stoidentifytheirproducts:LincolnInsuran__showsaprofileofthepresident;ContinentalInsuran__portraysaRevolutionaryWarminute__n;Amtrak’slogoisredwhiteandblue;LibertyMutual’scorporatesymbolistheStatueofLiberty;Allstate’snameiscradledbyapairofprotectivefatherlyhands.Corporationsalsousethetransfertechniqueswhentheysponsorprestigiousshowsonradioandtelevision.Theseshowsfunctionassymbolsofdignityandclass.KraftCorporationforinstan__sponsoreda“LeonardBernsteinConductsBeethoven”con__rtwhileGulfOilisthesponsorofNationalGeographicspecialsandMobilsupportspublictelevision’s__sterpie__Theater.Inthiswaycorporationscanreachaneducatedinfluentialau___n__andperhapsimprovetheirpublici__gebyassociatingthemselveswithqualityprogramming.Politicaladsofcoursepracticallywrapthemselvesintheflag.AdsforapoliticalcandidateoftenshowtheWashingtonMonumentaFourthofJulyparadetheStarsandStripsabaldeaglesoaringoverthemountainsorawhite-steeplechurchonthevillagegreen.Thenationalanthemor“AmericatheBeautiful”__yplaysoftlyinthebackground.SuchappealstoAmericans’loveofcountrycansurroundthecandidatewithanauraofpatrioti__andintegrity.
4.TestimonialThetestimonialisoneofadvertiser’smost-lovedandmost-usedpropagandatechniques.Similartothetransferdevi__thetestimonialcapitalizesontheadmirationpeopleh__efora__lebrityto__ketheproductshinemorebrightly—eventhoughthe__lebrityisnotanexpertontheproductbeingsold.Printandtelevisionadsofferanonstopparadeoftestimonials:here’sCherforHolidaySpas;here’sbasketballstarMichaelJordaneatingWheaties;MichaelJacksonsingsaboutPepsi.AmericanExpressfeaturesaslewofwell-knownpeoplewhoassureusthattheynevergoanywherewithouttheirAmericanExpresscard.Testimonialscansellmoviestoo;newspaperadsforfilmsoftenfeaturef__orablecommentsbywell-knownreviewers.Andinre__ntyearstestimonialsh__eplayedanimportantroleinpitchingbooks;thebacksofpaperbacksfrequentlylistcomplimentaryblurbsby__lebrities.Politicalcandidatesaswellastheiradagenciesknowthevalueoftestimonials.BarbraStreisandlentherstarappealtothepresidentialcampaignofMichaelDukakiswhileArnoldSchwarzeneggerendorsedGeorgeBush.Evencontroversialsocialissuesaredebatedby__lebrities.Thenuclearfreezeforinstan__starredPaulNew__nfortheprosideandCharltonHestonforthecon.AsillogicalastestimonialssometimesarePepsi’sMichaelJacksonforinstan__isahealth-foodadherentwhodoesnotdrinksoftdrinkstheyareeffectivepropaganda.Welikethepersonsomuchthatweliketheproducttoo.
5.PlainFolksTheplainfolksapproachsaysineffect“Buymeorvoteforme.I’mjustlikeyou.”RegularfolkswillsurelylikeBobEvans’sDownontheFarmCountrySausageorgoodold-fashionedCountrytimeLemonade.Someadsemphasizetheideathat“we’reallinthesameboat.”Weseepeople__kinglong-distan__callsforjustthereasonswedo—toputthebabyonthephonetoGrand__orto____Momweloveher.Andhowdothesefolksywarmheartedusuallysaccharines__nesaffectusThey’resupposedto__keusfeelthatATT—themultinationalcorporategiant—hasthesamevalueswedo.Similarlyweareintrodu__dtothelittlepeopleatFordtheordinaryfolkswhoworkontheassemblylinenottobigwigsintheirexecutiveoffi__rs.What’sthepurposeofsuchanapproachToencourageustobuyacarbuiltbythesehonesthardworking“everydayJoes”whocareaboutqualityasmuchaswedo.Politicaladvertisements__kealmostasmuchuseofthe“plainfolks”appealastheydooftransferdevi__s.Candidateswearhardhatsfarmers’capsandassembly-linecoveralls.Theyjogaroundtheblockandcarrytheirownluggagethroughtheairport.Theideaistoconvin__votersthatthecandidatesare__eragepeoplenottheelite—notwealthylawyersorexecutivesbutthecommoncitizen.
6.BandwagonInthebandwagontechniqueadvertisers’pressure“Everyone’sdoingit.Whydon’tyou”Thiskindofpropagandaoftensuc__edsbecause__nypeopleh__eadeepdesirenottobedifferent.Politicalads____ustovoteforthe“winningcandidate.”Theadvertisersknowwetendtofeelcomfortabledoingwhatothersdo;wewanttobeonthewinningteam.Oradsshowaseriesofpeopleproclaiming“I’mvotingfortheSenator.Idon’tknowwhyanyonewouldn’t.”Againtheau___n__feelsunderpressuretoconform.Inthe__rketpla__thebandwagonapproachluresbuyers.Ads____usthat“nobodybutalllikeSaraLee”themessageisthatyoumustbeweirdifyoudon’t.They____usthat“mostpeoplepreferBrandXtwotooneoverotherleadingbrands”tobelikethe__jorityweshouldbuyBrandX.Ifwedon’tdrinkPepsiwe’releftoutof“thePepsigeneration.”Totakepartin“America’sf__oritehealthkick”theNationalDairyCouncilurgesustodrinkmilk.AndHondamotorcycleadspraisingthevirtuesofbeingafollower____us“Followtheleader.He’sonaHonda.”WhydothesepropagandatechniquesworkWhydoso__nyofusbuytheproductsviewpointsandcandidatesurgedonusbypropagandamessageTheyworkbecausetheyappealtoouremotionsnottoourminds.Ofteninfacttheycapitalizeonourprejudi__sandbiases.Forexampleifweareconvin__dthatenviro__entalistsareradicalswhowanttodestroyAmerica’srecordofindustrialgrowthandprogressthenwewillapplaudthecandidatewhoreferstothemas“treehuggers.”Clearthinkingrequireshardwork:____yzingaclaimresearchingthefactsexaminingbothsidesofanissueusinglogictoseetheflawsinanargument.__nyofuswouldratherletthepropagandistsdoourthinkingforus.Becausepropagandaissoeffectiveitisimportanttodetectitandunderstandhowitisused.We__yconcludeaftercloseexaminationthatsomepropagandasendsatruthfulworthwhilemessage.Someadvertisingforinstan__urgesusnottodrivedrunktobecomevolunteerstocontributetocharity.Evensowemustbeawarethatpropagandaisbeingused.Otherwisewewillh__econsentedtohandingovertoothersourindependen__ofthoughtandaction.
4.2TVAddictionTheword“addiction”isoftenusedlooselyandwrylyinconversation.Peoplewillrefertothemselvesas“mysterybookaddicts”or“cookieaddicts.”E.B.Whitewritesofhisannualsurgeofinterestingardening:“Wearehookedandare__kinganattempttokickthehabit.”Yetnobodyreallybelievesthatreadingmysteriesororderingseedsbycatalogueisseriousenoughtobecomparedwithaddictionsto______oralcohol.Theword“addiction”ishereusedjokinglytodenoteatendencytooverindulgeinsomepleasurableactivity.Peopleoftenrefertobeing“hookedonTV.”DoesthistoofallintothelightheartedcategoryofcookieeatingandotherpleasuresthatpeoplepursuewithunusualintensityoristhereakindoftelevisionviewingthatfallsintothemoreseriouscategoryofdestructiveaddictionWhenwethinkaboutaddictiontodrugsoralcoholwefrequentlyfocusonnegativeaspectsignoringthepleasurethataccompanydrinkingordrug-taking.Andyettheessen__ofanyseriousaddictionisapursuitofpleasureasearchfora“high”thatnor__llifedoesnotsupply.Itisonlytheinabilitytofunctionwithouttheaddictivesubstan__thatisdi__ayingthedependen__oftheorgani__upona__rtainexperien__andanincreasinginabilitytofunctionnor__llywithoutit.Thusapersonwe’lltaketwoortheredrinksattheendofthedaynotmerelyforthepleasuredrinkingprovidesbutalsobecausehe“doesn’tfeelnor__l”withoutthem.Anaddictdoesnotmerelypursueapleasurableexperien__andneedtoexperien__itinordertofunctionnor__lly.Heneedstorepeatitagainandagain.Somethingaboutthatparticularexperien____keslifewithoutitlessthancomplete.Otherpotentiallypleasurableexperien__sarenolongerpossibleforunderthespelloftheaddictiveexperien__hislifeispeculiarlydistorted.Theaddictcr__esanexperien__andyetheisneverreallysatisfied.Theorgani____ybetemporarilysatedbutsoonitbeginstocr__eagain.Finallyaseriousaddictionisdistinguishedfromaharmlesspursuitofpleasurebyitsdistinctlydestructiveelements.A______addictforinstan__leadsada__gedlife:hisincreasingneedfor______inincreasingdosespreventshimfromworkingfrom__intainingrelationshipsfromdevelopinginhu__nways.Similarlyanalcoholic’slifeisnarrowedanddehu__nizedbyhisdependen__onalcohol.Letusconsidertelevisionviewinginthelightoftheconditionsthatdefineseriousaddictions.Notunlikedrugsoralcoholthetelevisionexperien__allowstheparticipanttoblotouttherealworldandenterintoapleasurableandpassivementalstate.Theworriesandanxietiesofrealityareaseffectivelydeferredbybecomingabsorbedinatelevisionprogramasbygoingona“trip”indu__dbydrugsoralcohol.Andjustasalcoholicsareonlyinchoatelyawareoftheiraddictionfeelingthattheycontroltheirdrinkingmorethantheyreallydo“IcancutitoutanytimeIwant—Ijustliketoh__ethreeorfourdrinksbeforedinner”peoplesimilarlyoveresti__tetheircontrolovertelevisionwatching.Evenastheyputoffotheractivitiestospendhourafterhourwatchingtelevisiontheyfeeltheycouldeasilyresumelivinginadifferentlesspassivestyle.Butsomehoworotherwhilethetelevisionsetispresentintheirhomestheclickdoesn’tsound.Withtelevisionpleasures__ailablethoseotherexperien__sseemlessattractivemoredifficultsomehow.Ahe__yvieweracollegeEnglishinstructorobserves:“Ifindtelevisionalmostirresistible.WhenthesetisonIcannotignoreit.Ican’tturnitoff.Ifeelsappedwillessenervated.AsIreachouttoturnoffthesetthestrengthgoesoutofmyarms.SoIsitthereforhoursandhours.”Theself-confessedtelevisionaddictoftenfeelshe“ought”todootherthings—butthefactthathedoesn’treadanddoesn’tplanthisgardenorseworcrochetorplaygamesorh__econversationsmeansthatthoseactivitiesarenolongerasdesirableastelevisionviewing.Inawayahe__yviewer’slifeisasimbalan__dbyhistelevision“habit”asadrugaddict’soranalcoholic’s.Heislivinginaholdingpatternasitwerepassinguptheactivitiesthatleadtogrowthordevelopmentorasenseofaccomplishment.Thisisonereasonpeopletalkabouttheirtelevisionviewingsoruefullysoapologetically.Theyareawarethatitisanunproductiveexperien__thatalmostanyotherende__orismoreworthwhilebyanyhu__nmeasure.Finallyitistheadverseeffectoftelevisionviewingonthelivesofso__nypeoplethatdefinesitasaseriousaddiction.Thetelevisionhabitdistortsthesenseoftime.Itrendersotherexperien__svagueandcuriouslyunrealwhiletakingonagreaterrealityforitself.Itweakensrelationshipsbyreducingandsometimeseliminatingnor__lopportunitiesfortalkingforcommunicating.Andyettelevisiondoesnotsatisfyelsewhywouldtheviewercontinuetowatchhourafterhourdayafterday“Themeasureofhealth”writesLawren__Kubie“isflexibilityandespeciallythe_______to__asewhensated.”Butthetelevisionviewercanneverbesatedwithhistelevisionexperien__—theydonotprovidethetruenourishmentthatsatiationrequires—andthushefindsthathecannotstopwatching.
5.SectionFive:Society
5.1TheFunctionofArtArthasaneffectontheindividualandonaparticularcultureinasociety.Psychologicallyartenhan__slifebyaddingbeautytooursurroundings.Itisasour__ofpleasureandrelaxationfromthestressesoflife.Sociallyartplaysanumberofdifferentrolesbyvirtueofitscapacitytoembodysymbolicsignifican__toitsau___n__.Artfulfilsanumberofimportantsocialfunctions.Itisusedtocommunicatethevariousstatuespeoplehold.Itcanplayaroleinregulatingeconomicactivities.Anditisalmostalwaysameansforexpressingimportantpoliticalandreligiousideasandforteachingprinciplesthatarevaluedinsociety.Theseandothersocialusesofartfunctiontopreservetheestablishedsocialorganizationofeachsociety.
5.
1.1StatusIndicatorsOneofthesocialfunctionsofartisthecommunicationofstatusdifferen__sbetweenindividuals.Forinstan__genderdifferen__sinbodydecorationsanddressaretypicalofculturesthroughouttheworld.Agedifferen__s__ybesimilarlyindicated.Pubertyritualsoftenincludetattooingscarificationofthebodyindecorativedesignsorevenfillingoftheteethtobetweenchildrenand_____s.Socialclassdifferen__sincomplexsocietiesalsoinvolveaesthetic__rkerssuchastheclothingpeoplewearandthekindsofartworkstheyuseasdecorationsoftheirhomes.AccordingtoSahlinssocialandeconomicclassageandgenderdifferen__sarenoti__ableeveninthekindsoffabricspeople’sclothingis__defrom.Forinstan__silksinmostsocietiesarepredominantlywornbywomenespeciallythosewhoarepartoftheupperclassesandthosewhoaremiddle-aged.
5.
1.2EconomicFunctionsEconomiclifebyvirtueofitspracticalimportan__tooursurvivalandtoourstandardoflivingcansometimesbeasour__ofconflictbetweengroupsthatmustcarryoutexchangewithoneanother.Sometimesartperhapsbecauseitisvaluedforitsnonutilitarianqualitiescanplayaroleof__intainingharmonyinsuchsettings.ThiswasoneofthefunctionsoftheKulaRingexchangeof__remonialneckla__sandarmbandsamongislanderssuchastheTrobriandersandDobuans.
5.
1.3ReligiousFunctionsMuchofthedra__ticandemotionalimpactofreligionderivesfromitsuseofart.Religiousritualseverywhereincludesonganddan__perfor__n__sandthevisualartsfunctiontoheightentheemotionalcomponentofreligiousexperien__inallpartsoftheworldbyportrayingimportants__nesandsymbolsfromreligioushistoryandmythology.Insomeculturesartandreligiousritualareinseparable.Forinstan__amongtheAbelamofPapuaNewGuineaallartisprodu__dforuseinrituals.
5.
1.4DidacticFunctionsArtisoftenemployedasameansforteachingimportantculturalideasandvalues.Forinstan__hymnsinWesternreligiousexpresstheologicalcon__ptsandencouragethesupportofspecificreligiousvalues.DanielBiebuyckhas____yzedtheuseofarttoembodymoralandethicalprinciplesbytheLegapeopleofCentralAfrica.Legaethicalidealsarecodifiedinfigurinesofhu__nsandani__ls__deofivorypotterybonewoodandwickerwork.ThefigurinesareusedintheinitiationandtrainingofmenintoprominentpositionswithinLegasociety.Eachofthesestatuesisassociatedwithoneormoreaphori__saconcisestatementthatalludestoageneralethicalcon__pt.Forinstan__onefigureisacarvedstickwhosetopisslitsoastosuggestanopenmouth…Theo__ectillustratesthesaying“Hewhodoesnotputoffhisquarrelsomenesswillquarrelwithsomethingthathasthemouthwidelydistended.”Inotherritesthisidea__yberenderedbyacrocodilefigurinewithwidelydistendedjaws.Theaphori__alludestothedisastrouseffectsofquarrelsomenessandmeddlesomeness.ThusLegafigurineswerenotonlyworksofart;theywerealsodevi__sforteachingimportantmoralprinciplestoeachnewgeneration.Atthesametimetheirownershipbyoldermenwhohadachievedinitiationintothehighestlevelsofsocietyfunctionedtoperpetuaterespectforthemoralwisdomoftheleadersintheestablishedsocialhierarchy.
5.
1.5PoliticalFunctionsArtoftenfunctionstolegitimizetheauthorityofgover__ent.MountRushmoreinSouthDakotamemorializesfourAmericanpresidentswhowereselectedfortheirsymbolicassociationwithmessagesaboutvaluesofindividuali__anddemocracy.ThestatueMotherRussiacommemoratestheenduringwilltosurviveoftheRussianpeople.TheBritishCrownJewelsbyvirtueoftheirartistryandthesymboli__ofpreciousstonesthatoriginatedthroughouttheCommonwealth__lebratethevalueoftheinstitutionofthemonarchy.AndtheornatelycarvedGoldenStooloftheAshantiofsouthernGhanawiththedistinctivemythofitssupernaturaloriginsreinfor__sthelegiti__cyoftheAshantikingandtheunityandstabilityofAshantisociety.Asastatementaboutthelegiti__cyofgover__entalauthorityartisaconservativefor__insociety.Inthisroleitisintendedtoelicitloyaltyandtostabilizesocietyanditspoliticalsystem.Gover__entsalsosometimesdeliberatelyemploythisaspectofartaspropagandaurgingpublicactionthatsupportsofficialpolicy.Thuspropagandisticartembo___sbothdidacticandpoliticalfunctions.
5.2InterculturalPrejudi__sWhenculturemeetpeople__yh__elittleunderstandingorappreciationofgroupswhoseideologiesandadaptivestrategiesdifferfromtheirown.Peoplegrowupunderthenurturan__oftheirgroupandlearntofulfilltheirneedsbylivingaccordingtotheirgroup’sculture.Aspeoplelearntheirwayoflifetheygenerallyidentifythemselvesasmembersofthegroupthathascaredfortheirearlyneedsandhastaughtthemtherulesforliving.Simultaneouslytheygenerallydeveloppositivefeelingstowardthisreferen__groupanditsbeh__iors.Oftenthetrainingofchildreninthewaysofthegroupiscommunicatedexpresslybycontrastingthemwiththesupposedbeh__iorsofoutsiders:“Otherparents__ylettheirchildrencometothetablelikethatbutinourfamilywewashourhandsbeforeeating!”suchexpressionsteachchildrenthepatternsofbeh__iorexpectedofgroupmembersbuttheyalsocommunicateadisapprovalofoutsiders.Incomplexsocietieswithlargepopulationsand__nycompetinggroupsprejudi__sbetweengroupswithinthesociety__ybecomeacommonelementofdailyexperien__varyingfromgood-naturedrivalrytodirectantipathies.IntheUnitedStateswe__ythinkofourownstateas“God’sowncountry”ourpoliticsastheonlyrationalwayofdoingthingsorourreligionastheonlyroadtosalvation.Evensuchgroupsymbolsashairlengthandstyleofclothingh__eservedasgroundsforsuspensionfromschoolunifiedthoseinpublicdemonstrationsandcausedinterpersonalviolen__.Theattitudethatone’sowncultureisthenaturallysuperioronethestandardbywhichallotherculturesshouldbejudgedandthatculturesdifferentfromone’sownareinferiorissuchacommonwayofreactingtoothers’customsthatitisgivenaspecialnamebyanthropologists.Ethno__ntri____nteredinone’sethnostheGreekwordforapeopleoranationisfoundineveryculture.Peopleallowtheirjudgmentsabouthu__nnatureandabouttherelativemeritsofdifferentwaysoflifetobeguidedbyideasandvaluesthatare__nterednarrowlyonthewayoflifeoftheirownsociety.Ethno__ntri__servesasocietybycreatinggreaterfeelingsofgroupunity.Whenindividualsspeakethno__ntricallytheyaffirmtheirloyaltytotheidealsoftheirsocietyandelicitinotherpersonsofthegroupsharedfeelingsofsuperiorityabouttheirsocialbody.Thisenhan__stheirsenseofidentityasmembersofthesamesocietyandasbearersofacommonculture.Asharedsenseofgroupsuperiority—especiallyduringitsovertcommunicationbetweengroupmembers—canhelpthemoverlookinternaldifferen__sandpreventconflictsthatcouldotherwisedecreasetheabilityofthegrouptoundertakeeffectivelycoordinatedaction.Formostofhu__nhistorysocietiesh__ebeen__allerthanthenationsoftodayandmostpeopleh__einteractedonlywithmembersoftheirownsociety.Undersuchcircumstan__stheroleofethno__ntri__inhelpingasocietytosurvivebymotivatingitsmemberstosupportoneanotherintheircommongoalshasprobablyoutweigheditsnegativeaspects.Howeverethno__ntri__definitelyhasadarkerside.Itisadirectbarriertounderstandingamongpeoplesofdiversecustomsandvalues.Itenhan__se__itybetweensocietiesandcanbeamotivationforconflictamongpeopleswhoselivesareguidedbydifferentcultures.Ethno__ntri__standsinfundamentalconflictwiththegoalsofanthropology:therecognitionofthecommonhu__nityofallhu__nbeingsandtheunderstandingofthecausesofculturaldifferen__s.To__nystudentsmuchoftheappealofthefieldofanthropologyhasbeenitsintriguingdiscussionsoftheunendingvarietyofcustomsgrownoutofwhatfromtheviewpointoftheuninitiated__yseemlikestrangeandexoticunexpectedandevenstartlinglydifferentvalues.Apeople’svaluesgenerally__keperfectlygoodsensewhenseenandexplainedinthecontextoftheirculturalsystemasawhole.Yetitisoftendifficultto__kesenseoutofanotherculturaltraditionbecauseitssymbolicmeanings__ybesodifferentfromone’sown.Whilenegativereactionstothecustomsofanothersociety__ythereforebeexpectedtheyshouldbeguardedagainstbythestudentofanthropology.
5.3CultureShockAnthropologistswhoengageinfieldworkinaculturethatdiffersfromtheoneinwhichtheygrewupoftenexperien__aperiodofdisorientationorevendepressionknownascultureshockbeforetheybecomeaccli__tizedtotheirnewenviro__ent.Eventouristswhotr__elforonlyashorttimeoutsidetheirownnations__yexperien__cultureshockandunlesstheyarepreparedforitsimpactthey__ysimplytransformtheirowndistressintoamotiveforprejudi__againsttheirhostsociety.
5.4GroupsEveryhu__nsocietyisagroupwhosemembersper__ivetheircommonidentitybecauseoftheculturethatbindsthemtogether.Allhu__nsocietiesthath__ebeenstu___dsubdivideinto__allergroupsthatcoales__fromtimetotimeforspecializedactivities.Suchgroupsh__egeographicalboundariesspecifiablemembersacommonactivityengagedinbymembersandadivisionoflabor.Basketballfansforexamplewhenscatteredacrossthecountryarenotagroupbutspectatorsataspecificgameare.Whenagroupisfor__llyorganizedit__yh__eanexplicitlyformulatedideologyagoal-orientedgameplanorsetofpro__duresforcarryingouttheactivitythatbringsitsmemberstogether.Themembersofsocialgroupsgenerallyidentifythemselvessymbolicallywithanameorsomeotheremblemoftheirgroupidentity.Commonlytheidentifyingemblemindicatestheactivitythatdrawsthememberstogetherorrepresentssomeotherimportantaspectsofthegroup’scharacteristics.ThusthegroupidentityoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaissymbolizedbyaflagthatportraysthepoliticalunityofthatsociety’s50statesbyagroupof50stars.TheGreatSealoftheUnitedStatesofAmericacontainsthei__geofaneagleclutchinganolivebranchandarrowssymbolsofpea__andwarwhichsuggestthatthe__jorpurposeofthenationasapoliticalentityisto__intaininternalorderandtodefendthegroup.A__allermorefa__-to-fa__groupsuchasabasketballteam__yidentifyitselfasaunifiedbodybynamingitselfandbysymbolizingitsathleticpurposewithsomesymbolofitsprowesssuchasachargingbulloraflyinghawk.Therewillalsobestructuredrelationshipsbetweengroupsineverysociety.Interactionsbygroupsareculturallypatternedand__yinvolvehierarchicalrankingwitheachgrouph__ingdifferentdegreesofhonorandsocialpower.Grouprelationshipsaresometimescalledthesocialstructureofasocietytodistinguishthisaspectofsocialorganizationfromotheraspectssuchasindividualstatusesandroles.
5.5AuthorityItwillnotcomeasasurprisethatasocietythatadmiresindependen__andprogressdoesnoth__eanauto__ticrespectforauthority.Whatdeferen__peopleinauthoritydocom__ndisbasedontheiractualpowersratherthanontheiragewisdomordignity.Oldpeopleareoftenseenasbehindthetimes.It’stheyoungwhoareexpectedtoh__esomespecialinsightintothemodernworld.AfterallitwasbyoverthrowingtheKingofEnglandthattheUnitedStateswasbornandsuspicionofauthorityhasre__inedapillarofAmericanlife.ThisattitudehashelpedestablishtheUSAasthebirthpla__ofinnovationsthath__echangedtheworld.Ifabetterwayofdoingsomethingcomesalongweunsentimentallyjettisontheoldway.Butwealsojettisonpeople.Inasocietythatchangesasfastasoursexperien__simplydoesnoth__ethevaluethatitdoesintraditionalsocieties.
5.6TheNo-StatusSocietyInastatussocietypeoplelearntheirpla__sandgainsomedignityandsecurityfromh__ingapla__inthesocialorder.Americanshoweveraretaughtnottorecognizetheirpla__sandtoconstantlyassertthemselves.Thiscan__nifestitselfinpositiveways—hardworkcleverideas—butalsoinongoingdissatisfaction.AsanAmericanisalwaysstrivingtochangehislotheneverfullyidentifieswithanygroup.Weh__enoexpressionssuchasinChinawhere“thefatpiggetsslaughtered”orinJapanwhere“thenailthatsticksoutgetshammereddown.”Hereeverybodyistryingtostickoutwhichlimitsclosenessbetweenpeople.Wesay“It’sthesqueakywheelthatgetsthegrease.”AccordingtoAlanRolandauthorofInSearchofSelfinIndiaandJapanintheUnitedStates”amilitantindividuali__hasbeencombinedwithenormoussocialmobility”le__ingverylittlegroupidentity.Rolandpsycho____yzedAmericansIndiansandJapaneseanddiscoveredthatthetwoAsiancultureshadnocon__ptofthestronginnerseparationfromothersthatischaracteristicofAmericans.Becauseoursocietyissocompetitivewefeelintheendthatwecanonlyrelyonourselves.This_______fromthegrouphasenabledtheAmericantobecome“Economic__n”—onedirectedalmostpurelybytheprofitmotivemobileandunencumberedbyfamilyorcommunityobligations.It’sapersonalitytypewellsuitedtonationaldevelopmentbutonethatleadstoidentityproblemsfortheindividualhimself.“Identityisthenumberonnationalproblemhere”writesEvaHoff__nthePolish-bornauthorofLostinTranslation.”__nyofmyAmericanfriendsfeeltheydon’th__eenoughofit.Theyoftenfeelworthlessortheydon’tknowhowtheyfeel.”ButtosomeonewhofeelsoppressedinanothercultureAmericanlifecanlookwonderful.“Americansh__eablankcheckonwhichtheycanwriteanythingtheywant”concludedoneforeigneraftertenyearshere.
5.7ConformityToanAmericanwhattheworldthinksofhimisextremelyimportant.Onlythroughtheeyesofotherscansuc__ssh__esignifican__.Thetheoryofculture____ystD__idRie__anisthatAmericansarenolongerpri__rilygovernedbyinnervalueshandeddownthroughgenerations.InsteadhethinksAmericansh__ebecomeouter-directedpeople—guidednotbytheirownconscien__sbutbytheopinionsofothers.Tobelikediscrucial.Althoughindividuali__is__ntralinAmerica—inthesensethattheselfcomesfirst—Americansarenotindividualists.Actuallypersonsinstatussocietieswhoaresecureintheirnichesareallowedmoreec__ntricitythanAmericanswhorelyhe__ilyonsignalsthatotherpeoplelikethem.InAmericapopularityisasignofsuc__ssandterriblyimportant.Nobodycanh__etoo__nyfriends—aslongastheydon’ttakeuptoomuchoftheirvaluabletime.
5.8DebatingMoralQuestionsNowhereismodernthinkingmoremuddledthanoverthequestionofwhetheritispropertodebatemoralissues.__nyargueitisnotsayingitiswrongto__ke“valuejudgments.”Thisviewisshallow.Ifsuchjudgmentswerewrongthenethicsphilosophyandtheologywouldbeunac__ptableinacollegecurriculum—anideathatisobviouslysilly.Asthefollowingcasesillustrateitisimpossibleto__oid__kingvaluejudgments.RaoulWallenbergwasayoungSwedisharistocrat.In1944heleftthesafetyofhiscountryandenteredBudapest.OverthenextyearheoutwittedtheNazisands__edas__nyas100000JewshewasnothimselfJewishfromthedeathcamps.In1945hewasarrestedbytheRussianschargedwithspyingandimprisonedinaRussianlaborcamp.He__ystillbealivethere.Nowifweregardhimasahero—asthereisex__llentreasontodo—weare__kingavaluejudgment.Yetifweregardhimneutrallyasnodifferentfromanyoneelsewearealso__kingavaluejudgment.Wearejudginghimtobeneitherheronorvillainbut__erage.Consideranothercase.Inlate1981a20-year-oldmotherleftherthreeinfantsonsunattendedinagarbage-strewntenementinNewYorkCity.2Poli__foundthemtherestarvingtheyoungestchildlodgedbetweena__ttressandawallcoveredwithfliesandcockroachestheeldestplayingonthesecond-floorwindowledge.Thepoli__judgedthemothernegligentandthecourtagreed.WasitwrongforthemtojudgeAndifwerefusetojudgewon’tthatrefusalitselfbeajudgmentinthemother’sf__orNo__tterhowdifficultit__ybetojudgesuchmoralissueswemustjudgethem.Valuejudgmentisthebasisnotonlyofoursocialcodebutofourlegalsystem.Thequalityofourlawsisdirectlyaffectedbythequalityofourmoraljudgments.Asocietythatjudgesblacksinferiorisnotlikelytoaccordblacks’equaltreatment.Asocietythatbelievesawo__n’spla__isinthehomeisnotlikelytoguaranteewomenequalemploymentopportunity.Otherpeopleac__ptvaluejudgmentsaslongastheyare__dewithinacultureandnotaboutothercultures.Rightandwrongtheybelievevariesfromoneculturetoanother.Itistruethatanactfrowneduponinoneculture__ybetoleratedinanotherbutthedegreeofdifferen__hasoftenbeengrosslyexaggerated.Whenwefirstencounteranunfamiliarmoralviewweareinclinedtofocusonthedifferen__somuchthatwemissthesimilarity.Forexampleinme___valEuropeani__lsweretiredforcrimesandoftenfor__llyexecuted.Infactcockroachesandotherbugsweresometimesexcommunicatedfromthechurch.Soundabsurddoesn’titButwhenwepenetratebeneaththeabsurditywerealizethatthebasicview—thatsomeactionsarereprehensibleandoughttobepunished—isnotsostrange.Thecoreideathatapersonbittenbysayadoghasbeenwrongedandrequiresjusti__isverymuchthesame.Theonlydifferen__isourrejectionoftheideathatani__lsareresponsiblefortheirbeh__ior.Isitlegiti__tethenforustopassjudgmentonthemoralstandardsofanothercultureYesifwedosothoughtfullyandnotjustconcludethatwhateverdiffersfromourviewisne__ssarilywrong.Wecanjudgeforexampleaculturethattreatswomenaspropertyorpla__slessvalueontheirlivesthanonthelivesofmen.Moreoverwecansayasocietyisactingimmorallybydenyingwomentheirhu__nrights.Considerthefollowingcases.Innineteenth-__nturyRiodeJaneiroBrazilatheatricalprodu__rshotandkilledhiswifebecausesheinsistedontakingawalkinthebotanicalgardensagainsthiswishes.Hewasfor__llychargedwithhermurderbutthejudgedi__issedthecharge.Theprodu__rwascarriedthroughthestreetsintriumph.Themoralperspectiveofhisculturecondonedthetakingofawo__n’slifeifshedisobeyedherhu__andeveninarelatively__all__tter.A__nturylaterthatperspectivehadchangedlittleinthesamecityin1976awealthy_______angryathisloverforflirtingwithothersfiredfourshotsintoherfa__atpoint-blankrangekillingher.Hewasgivenatwoyearsuspendedsenten__inlightofthefactthathehadbeen“defendinghishonor.”Surelyitisirresponsibleforustowithholdjudgmentonthemoralityofthesemerelybecausetheyoccurredinadifferentculture.Itisobviousthatinbothcasesthemen’sresponsemurderwasoutofallproportiontothewomen’s“offenses”andthereforedemonstratedawantondisregardforthewomen’shu__nrights.Theirresponseisthusproperlyjudgedimmoral.Andthisjudgmentimpliesanother—thattheculturecondoningsuchbeh__iorisguiltyofmoralinsensitively.
5.9ArtasNonverbalCommunicationLikelanguageandsocialorganizationartisessentialto__n.Asembellishmentandascreationofo__ectsbeyondrequirementsofthemostbasicneedsoflivingarthasaccompanied__nsin__prehistorictimes.Becauseofitsalmostunfailingconsistencyasanelementof__nysocietiesart__ybearesponsetosomebiologicalorpsychologicalneed.Indeeditisoneofthemostconstantformsofhu__nbeh__ior.HoweveruseofthewordartisnotrelevantwhenwedescribeAfricanartbecauseitisreallyaEuropeantermthatatfirstgrewoutofGreekphilosophyandwaslaterreinfor__dbyEuropeanculture.Theuseofothertermssuchasexoticartprimitiveartandsoontodelineatedifferen__sisjustasmisleading.Mostsuchtermsarepejorative—implyingthatAfricanartisonalowerculturallevel.Levelsofcultureareirrelevantheresin__AfricanandEuropeanattitudestowardthecreativeactaresodifferent.Sin__thereisnoterminourlanguagetodistinguishbetweentheessentialdifferen__sinthinkingitisbestthentodescribestandardsofAfricanart.Africanartattractsbecauseofitspowerfulemotionalcontentanditsbeautifulabstractform.Abstracttreatmentofformdescribesmostoftenwithbareessentialsoflineshapetextureandpatternintenseenergyandsublimespirituality.Hundredsofdistinctculturesandlanguagesand__nytypesofpeopleh__ecreatedoveronethousanddifferentstylesthatdefyclassification.Eachartandcraftformhasitsownhistoryanditsownaestheticcontent.Buttherearesomecommondenominatorsalwayswithex__ptions.Africanartisfunctional.Itsfunctionisitspurposewhetheritiseconomic__gicalorreligious.Thereisthoughsomeartforitsownsakesuchasintheembellishmentofpulleysusedinwe__ing.Thecarvingonthepulley__ynot__keforastrongerpulleyametalhookwouldbecheaperandstrongerbutwhenaskedwhyanotherkindwasn’tusedthewe__eranswered“Onedoesnotwanttolivewithoutprettythings.”Africanartisawayofexperiencingtheworld.Allitsformswhether__skssculpturehousesfabricspoetrymusicordan__rendertheinvisiblevisibleandrevealthemeaningoftheconfrontationbetweenlifeanddeathItwasPaulKleeinfluen__dbyAfricanartwhosaidthatthetaskofartwasto__ketheinvisiblevisible.TheAfricanartistworksfromthefor__totheformthatembo___sit.Untilthetwentieth__nturyEuropeanartistsinspiredbyGreektraditionsstartedfromaconcreteformusuallythatofthehu__nfiguretoexpressthedivine.TheAfricanartisthoweverbeginswithasenseofaspiritualpresen__insidehimwhichhethenexpressesthroughartinaconcreteform.TheAfricanartistisnotconsideredanartist.He__ybeafarmerwhocarvesora__ithwhoisendowedwith__gicalpowers.Theresponsibilityforunderstandingtheoperationoffor__sissuingfromthedivinepowerandofcontrollingtheminameaningfulwayliesinthemedicine__norpriest.Itisthepriestwhocommunicatestheneedfora__rtainformtothecarverifitistoh__esomespiritualendowment.Thatiswhycarversdon’tseeanythingwrongincopyinganothercarver’swork.Copyingisjustanotherformofflattery.TheAfricancon__ptionofartisacommunalcon__ptionascomparedwithEuropeanindividualisticexpression.TotheAfricancommunityexistedpriortotheindividualandtheindividualisjusta__allpartofalongtradition.Thesenseofunityextendstonatureandtotheearth—earthbelongstoan__stors.Secretsocietiessupportingthemedicine__n__intainstandardsofbeh__iorbyspecialinitiationtestsritualsfor__nyoccasionsoathsofsecrecyandthelike.Theysupervisemoralityupholdtribaltraditionsanddispensejusti__.Theysetstandardsforartformsfrombirththroughpuberty__rriageanddeath.__skssculpturesintheformofan__storfiguresfetishesandritualimplementsrattlesanddrumsconformtothesetraditions.Fetishesareo__ectsendowedwith__gicalpowersforaspecialpurposeandareusuallycrudelyfashionedbythemedicine__n.Africanartgivesformtothesupernaturalandinvisible.Itsabstracti__gerydoesnotevenattempttoimitateconcreteappearan__s.Howdoesonerepresentthepowerandvirtueofanan__storortherhythmofanani__lconcretelyFromthisemergearhythmicunityandareductionofeveryfor__lelementtoitseternalgeometry.Africanartisonethatisinequilibriumwithnatureandformsacommunionwithnature.TotheAfricansculpturecanbere__ptacleofthean__stor’sspiritualityandhastheabilitytotran__itthatspiritualitywhenne__ssary.Itsmessageormeaningbecomesitspresen__.Africanartisclosertolifethantheartofothercountries.Itsartformsarewithinevery__n’sreach.Theyareane__ssityanintegralfor__andpartofliving.Asfunctionalformstheyinvitedirectparticipationintheiruse.ThisisthevitalityofAfricanart.Insum__ryAfricanartexplainsthepastdescribevaluesandawayoflifehelps__nrelatetosupernaturalfor__smediateshissocialrelationsexpressesemotionsandenhan__s__n’spresentlifeasanembellishmentdenotingprideorstatusaswellasprovidingentertai__entsuchaswithdan__andmusic.
5.10TurtleIslandIamapoet.MyteachersareotherpoetsAmericanIndiansandafewBuddhistpriestsinJapan.ThereasonIamhereisbecauseIwishtobringavoi__fromthewildernessmyconstituency.Iwishtobeaspoke__anforarealmthatisnotusuallyrepresentedeitherinin____ectualchambersorinthechambersofgover__ent.Iwouldliketothinkofanewdefinitionofhu__ni__andanewdefinitionofdemocracythatwouldincludethenonhu__nthatwouldh__erepresentationfromthosespheres.ThisiswhatIthinkwemeanbyanecologicalconscien__.Idon’tlikewesternculturebecauseIthinkithasmuchinitthatisinherentlywrongandthatisattherootoftheenviro__entalcrisisthatisnotre__nt;itisveryancient;ithasbeenbuildingupforamillennium.Thereare__nythingsinWesternculturethatareadmirable.Butaculturethatalienatesitselffromtheverygroundofitsownbeing—fromthewildnessoutsidethatistosaywildnaturethewildself-containedself-informingecosystemsandfromthatotherwildernessthewildernesswithin—isdoomedtoaverydestructivebeh__iorulti__telyperhapsself-destructivebeh__ior.TheWestisnottheonlyculturethatcarriesthesedestructiveseeds.ChinahadeffectivelydeforesteditselfbyA.D.
800.ThesoilsoftheMiddleEastwereruinedevenearlier.Theforeststhaton__coveredthemountainsofYugoslaviawerestrippedtobuildtheRo__nfleetandthosemountainsh__elookedlikeUtaheversin__.ThesoilsofsouthernItalyandSicilywereruinedbysl__e-laborfarmingintheRomanEmpire.ThesoilsoftheAtlanticseaboardintheUnitedStateswereeffectivelyruinedbeforetheAmericanRevolutionbecauseoftheone-croptobaccofarming.Sothesamefor__sh__ebeenatworkinEastandWest.Alineisdrawbetweenprimitivepeoplesandcivilizedpeoples.Ithinkthereiswisdomintheworldviewofprimitivepeoplesthatweh__etoreferourselvestoandlearnfrom.Ifweareonthevergeofpostcivilizationthenournextstepmusttakeaccountoftheprimitiveworldviewwhichhastraditionallyandin____igentlytriedtokeepopenlinesofcommunicationwiththefor__sofnature.Youcannotcommunicativewiththefor__sofnatureinalaboratory.Oneoftheproblemsisthatwesimplydonotknowmuchaboutprimitivepeopleandprimitivecultures.Ifwecantentativelyaccommodatethepossibilitythatnaturehasadegreeofauthenticityandin____igen__thatrequiresthatwelookatitmoresensitivelythenwecanmoveontothenextstep.
6.SectionSix:Politics
6.1Proverbs*Theulti__teresponsibilityofaleaderistofacilitateotherpeople’sdevelopmentaswellashisown.*Theleader’staskthenistocreateanenviro__entthatisconducivetoself-motivation.*Ifpeoplearecomingtoworkexcited…ifthey’re__kingmistakesfreelyandfearlessly…ifthey’reh__ingfun…ifthey’recon__ntratingondoingthingsratherthanpreparingreportsandgoingtomeetings-thensomewhereyouh__ealeader.*Asa__nagertheimportantthingisnotwhathappenswhenyouaretherebutwhathappenswhenyouarenotthere.*Tobealeadermeanswillingnesstorisk-andawillingnesstolove.Hastheleadergivenyousomethingfromtheheart*Abusinessisareflectionoftheleader.Afishdoesn’tstinkjustfromthetailandacompanydoesn’tsuc__edorfailfromthebottom.*Perhapsmorethananythingelseleadershipisaboutthe“creationofanewwayoflife.”*Theworldofthe‘90sandbeyondwillnotbelongto__nagersorthosewho__kethenumbersdan__asweusedtosayorthosewhoareconversantwithallthebusinessandjargonweusetosound__art.Theworldwillbelongtopassionatedrivenleaders-peoplewhonotonlyh__eanenormousamountofenergybutwhocanenergizethosewhomtheylead.*Therearecountlesswaysofattaininggreatnessbutanyroadtoreachingone’s__ximumpotentialmustbebuiltonbedrockofrespectfortheindividualacommitmenttoex__llen__andarejectionofmediocrity.*Thefirstandlasttaskofaleaderistokeephopealive—thehopethatwecanfinallyfindourwaythroughtoabetterworld—despitetheday’sactiondespiteourowninertnessandshallownessandw__eringresolve.*Leadershipisasacrifi__—itisselfdenial—itisloveitisfearlessnessanditishumidityanditisintheperfectlydisciplinedwill.Thisisalsothedistinctionbetweengreatandlittlepeople.Theharderyouworktheharderitistosurrender.*Theroleoftheleaderistoenhan__transformcoachcaretrustandcheerlead.Theactivistsoftheleaderaretoeducatesponsorcoachandcounselusingappropriatetimingtoneconsequen__sandskills.*Leadersknowthatthehigherupyougothemoregentlydownyoureach.*I’ll____youwhat__kesagreat__nager:agreat__nagerhasaknackfor__kingballplayersthinktheyarebetterthantheythinktheyare.Hefor__syoutoh__eagoodopinionofyourself.Heletsyouknowhebelievesinyou.He__kesyougetmoreoutofyourself.Andon__youlearnhowgoodyoureallyareyouneversettleforplayinganythinglessthanyou’reverybest.*Thefirstresponsibilityofaleaderistodefinereality.Thelastistosaythankyou.Inbetweentheleaderisaservant.
6.2What__kesaLeaderPracticallyeveryhu__nende__orrequiresleadership.ZigZiglarsays“Evenatwo-carparadegetsfouledupifyoudon’tdecideaheadoftimethat’sgoingtolead.”On__weknowwhoisleadingitiscriticalfortheleadertoknowhowtolead.WhatqualitiesdoeffectiveleaderspossessHowdotheygoabout__nagingtheaffairsofthecompanywhile__intainingtheloyaltyofemployeesWhatsetsapartthemediocrefromtheex__llentleaderHaroldGreenwhobuiltITTfromalittlecompanyintoa__ssiveconglomerateprovidesasuitableintroductiontothisissueofleadership.Inhisbook__naginghesaysthisabouttheartofleadership:“Leadershipistheveryheartandsoulofbusiness__nagement.Noonereally__nagesabusinessbyshufflingthenumbersorrearrangingorganizationalchartsortallyingthelatestbusinessschoolformulas.Whatyou__nageinbusinessisaperson…Tomymindthequalityofleadershipisthesinglemostimportantingre___ntintherecipeofbusinesssuc__ss.”Leadersleadpeople.Aleaderisonewhomothersconsistentlyfollow.Peoplefollowbecausetheyh__eabriefinthedirectionintegrityandcompeten__oftheoneleading.IrwinFeder__npresidentand__OofMonolithicMemoriesoneofthemostsuc__ssfulofthehigh-techcompaniesinSiliconValleyillustratesthisbrilliantlyinthefollowingquote:“Ifyouthinkaboutitpeopleloveothersnotforwhotheyarebutforhowthey__keusfeel.Wewillinglyfollowothersformuchthesamereason.It__kesusfeelgoodtodoso.Nowwealsofollowplatoonsergeantsself-__nteredgeniusesde__ndingspousesbossesofvariouspersuasionsandothersforavarietyofreasonsaswell.Butnoneofthosereasonsinvolvesthatperson’sleadershipqualities.Inordertowillinglyac__ptthedirectionofanotherindividualitmustfeelgoodtodoso.Thisbusinessof__kinganotherpersonfeelsgoodintheunspectacularcoursesofhisdailycomingsandgoingsisinmyviewtheveryessen__ofleadership.”__nagementconsultantandauthorJoeBattenwrote:“Thetough-mindedleaderalwaysgiveshightouchpri__cyoverhightech.inshortpeoplefirst—technologysecond.”J.Willard__rriottchair__noftheboardoftheenormouslysuc__ssfulhotelchainwasasked:“Howdoyou__nagetobefairandni__withpeopleandyetde__ndex__llen__fromthem”“Wellit’stough-minded__nagementwhichbasicallysaysthatyoutreatpeoplerightandfairandde__ntandinreturntheygivetheirallforyou.”Leaderslovepeople.Theyexpectthebestfromthem.Sensitivitytoemployeeneedswantsandcon__rnsisatthetopoftheirpriorities.Thecourageto__kedecisionsbasedon“what’srightforpeople”governstheirday-to-dayresponsibilities.Peoplerespondtosuchleadership.JohnW.GardnerformerSecretaryoftheU.S.DepartmentofHealthEducationandWelfarepinpointedfourmoralgoalsofaleader:
1.Releasinghu__npotential
2.Balancingtheneedsoftheindividualandthecommunity
3.Defendingthefundamentalvaluesofthecommunityand
4.Instillinginindividualsasenseofinitiativeandresponsibility.Thesevaluespromptpeopletorespondpositively.Whenlivedandnotjustpreachedpeoplerealizetheirbestinterestisbeingconsidered.Leaderswhosin__relyactivateGardner’sgoalswillexperien__anupsurgeinemployeeproductivity.LieutenantGeneralZaisprovidedthischallenge:“Ile__eyouwiththeonepie__ofadvi__whichIbelievewillcontributemoreto__kingyouabetterleaderwillprovideyouwithgreaterhappinessandself-esteemandatthesametimeadvan__yourcareermorethanotheradvi__thatIcanprovideyou.Anditdoesn’tcallforspecialpersonalityorforany__rtainchemistry.Anyoneofyoucandoit.Andthatadvi__is:Youmustcare.”Zaiscontinued“Youcannotexpectthesol___rtobeaproudsol___rifyouhumiliatehim.Youcannotexpecthimtobebr__eifyouabusehimandcowerhim.Youcannotexpecthimtobestrongifyoubreakhim.Youcannotaskforrespectandobe___n__andwillingnesstoassaulthotlandingzoneshumpback-breakingridgesdestroydug-inempla__mentifasol___rhasnotbeentreatedwithrespectanddignitywhichfostersunitspiritandpersonalpride.Thelinebetweenfirmnessandharshnessbetweenstrongleadershipandbullying…isafineline.Itisdifficulttodefine.Butthoseofuswhoh__eac__ptedacareerasleadersmustfindthatonlypeoplecanleadnotjudgmentandcon__rnforpeopleareinvolvedinleadershipthatonlypeoplecanleadnotcomputers.Ienjoinyoutobeeveralerttothepitfallsintoomuchauthority.Bewarethatyoudonotfallintothecategoryofthelittle__nwithalittlejobandwithabighead.Inessen__beconsideratetreatyoursubordinatesrightandtheywillliterally___foryou.”“Treatpeopleas_____s”saysTomPeterofInSearchofEx__llen__fame.“Treatthemaspartnerstreatthemwithdignityandtreatthemwithrespecttreatpeople—notcapitalspendingandauto__tion—asthepri__rysour__ofproductivitygains.Thesearefundamentallessonsfromtheex__llentcompanies’research.”ZaisandPetersprovideanaptreminderthatleadersh__etheresponsibilitytotreatpeoplewiththeutmostrespectanddignity.Everyleaderworkswiththingsideasandpeople.Withoutideasthingsarenotcreatedandwithoutpeopletherearenoideas.Toachievetheirgoals__artleadersrecognizethatthemoraleoftheirpeopleisofparamountimportan__.InWhatWorksforMe:Sixteen__O’sTalkAboutTheirCareersandCommitmentsTho__sR.HortonquotesRichardA.Zimmer__nchair__nand__OofHersheyFoods:Amongthe__OsIknowthemostsuc__ssfulonesh__eaverypositiveoutlook.Every__Ohastobeacheerleader.Attimesyou__yfeelthatyoucanlistaseriesofdisasters__nariosforyourcompanyand__rtainlyyouareinthebestpositiontodothat;still;youh__etobeacheerleaderatleastpartofthetime…OKweknowitisgoingtobetoughbutlet’sgetatit!YouneedalwaystobeencouragingandperhapsthatisoneofthemostadmiredattributesthatIseeinmost__Os.ToensurehighmoraletheTandemcomputercompanyadoptedthis______five-pointcreed:
1.Allpeoplearegood.
2.Peopleworkers__nagementandthecompanyareallthesamething.
3.Everysinglepersoninthecompanymustunderstandtheessen__ofthebusiness.
4.Everyemployeemustbenefitfromthecompany’ssuc__ss.
5.Youmustcreateanenviro__entwherealloftheabovecanhappen.JimTreybigPresidentand__OofTandemComputerssubstantiatesthiscredobydeclaring“Everythingstartswiththe__nager.Doeshecareaboutpeople”AndfromtheancientphilosophyofLaoTzucomesthismodernadvi__:Thegroupwillnotprosperiftheleadergrabsthelion’sshareofthecreditforthegoodworkthathasbeendone.Thegroupwillrebelandresistiftheleaderreliesonstrictcontrolsinaneffortto__kethingscomeouta__rtainway.Thegroupmemberswillbecomedeadenedandunresponsiveiftheleaderiscriticalandharsh.Thewiseleaderisnotgreedyselfishdefensiveorde__nding.Thatiswhytheleadercanbetrustedtoallowanyeventtounfoldnaturally.Peoplele__eorlovetheirjobsforanumberofreasons.Considerableresearchhasbeenconductedtodeterminehowcompaniescanincreasetheirintentionrates.Asidefrom__ssivedataa______questionwilladdressbothlovingandle__ingajob.HowimportantdopeoplefeelintheirworkWhath__eyouasaleaderdonetoshowyouremployeeshowimportanttheyareWhenwasthelasttimeyou__deitpossibleforpeopletobeproudoftheirachievementsHowoftendoyou__lebratesuc__ssPassonauthorityProviderecognitionforajobwelldoneWhatareyouasaleaderdoingto__keworksatisfyingchallengingandinterestingRobertTownsendformer__Oof__isRent-A-Carsum__rizesandencapsulatesourthinkingonwhat__kesaleaderwiththiscomment:Therealessen__ofleadershipistocareaboutyourpeopletohelpthemgetasmuchastheycanoutofthebusinessenviro__entandtoh__easmuchfunastheycan.Anybodywhocandothat—andreallymeanit—isaleader.
6.3WhatDerailsFast-TrackExecutivesWhydosomeexecutivesperishwhileothersflourishTheAmerican__nagementAssociationconductedin-depthinterviewswith41executivesandfoundthatthesetraitsoftenleadtofailure:
1.Insensitivitytoco-workers.
2.Aloofnessandarrogan__.
3.Tendencytomisuseinfor__tionconveyedinconfiden__.
4.Inabilitytocontrolambition.
5.Inabilitytodelegateassig__entsorpromoteteamwork.
6.Inabilitytostaffeffectively.
7.Inabilitytothinkstrategically.
8.Overdependen__onmentors.
6.4ALeaderIwentonasearchtobecomealeader.Isearchedhighandlow.Ispokewithauthority.Peoplelistened.ButalastherewasonewhowaswiserthanIandtheyfollowedthatindividual.Isoughttoinspireconfiden__butthecrowdresponded“WhyshouldItrustyou”IposturedandIassumedthelookforleadershipwithacountenan__thatflowedwithconfiden__andpride.But__nypassedmebyandnevernoti__dmyairofelegan__.Iranaheadoftheotherspointedthewaytonewheights.IdemonstratedthatIknewtheroutetogreatness.AndthenIlookedbackandIwasalone.“WhatshallIdo”Iqueried.“I’vetriedhardandusedallthatIknow.”AndIsatdownandponderedlong.AndthenIlistenedtothevoi__saroundme.AndIheardwhatthegroupwastryingtoaccomplish.Irolledupmysleevesandjoinedinthework.AsweworkedIasked“Arewealltogetherinwhatwewanttodoandhowtogetthejobdone”Andwethoughttogetherandwefoughttogetherandwestruggledtowardourgoal.Ifoundmyselfencouragingthefainthearted.Isoughttheideasofthosetooshytospeakout.Itaughtthosewhohadlittleskill.Ipraisedthosewhoworkedhard.Whenourtaskwascompletedoneofthegroupturnedtomeandsaid“Thiswouldnoth__ebeenbutforyourleadership.”AtfirstIsaid“Ididn’tlead.Ijustworkedwiththerest.”AndthenIunderstoodleadershipisnotagoal.It’swaytoreachingagoal.IleadbestwhenIhelpotherstogowherewe’vedecidedtogo.IleadbestwhenIhelpotherstousethemselvescreatively.IleadbestwhenIforgetaboutmyselfasleaderandfocusonmygrouptheirneedsandtheirgoals.Toleadistoservetogivetoachievetogether.
6.5WatergateUndertherelentlessproddingofJudgeJohnJ.SiricaoneoftheWatergateburglarsbeganto____thefullstoryoftheNixonadministration’scomplicityintheepisode.JamesW.McCordaformerCIAagentandsecuritychieffortheCommitteetoReelectthePresidentCREEPwasthefirstof__nyinformersandpenitentsinamelodra__thatunfoldedoverthenexttwoyearswhichmixedthespecialqualitiesofsoapoperaand__chi__ellianintrigue.ItendedinthefirstresignationofapresidentinAmericanhistorytheconvictionandimpriso__entoftwentyfiveofficialsoftheNixonadministrationincludingfourcabinetmembersandthemostseriousconstitutionalcrisissin__theimpeachmenttrialofPresidentAndrewJohnson.UNCOVERINGTHECOVER-UPThetrialofeviden__pursuedbyjudgeSiricaagrandjuryandseveralspecialprosecutorsandatelevisedSenateinvestigationheadedbySamuelJ.ErvinJr.ofNorthCarolinaleddirectlytotheWhiteHouse.Noeviden__su_____dthatNixonhadorderedthebreak-inorthathehadbeenawareofplanstoburglarizetheDemocraticNationalCommittee.ButfromthestartNixonwaspersonallyinvolvedinthecover-upusinghispresidentialpowerstodiscreditandblocktheinvestigation.PerhapsmostalarmingwasthediscoverythattheWatergateburglarywasmerelyone__allpartofalargerpatternofcorruptionandcriminalitysanctionedbytheNixonWhiteHouse.TheWhiteHousehadbecomecommittedtoillegaltacticsin__y1970whentheNewYorkTimesbrokethestoryofthesecretbombingsinCambodia.Nixonbynaturea__npossessedbyinsecurityhadorderedillegaltelephonetapsonseveralnew__enandgover__entemployeessuspectedofleakingthestory.In1971duringthecrisisgeneratedbythepublicationofthePentagonPapersateamofburglarsunderthedirectionofWhiteHouseadvisorJohnEhrlich__nhadbrokenintoapsychiatrist’soffi__inanefforttoobtainda__ginginfor__tiononDanielEll__ergtheformerPentagonemployeewhohadsuppliedthepresswiththesecretdocuments.Bythespringof1972Ehrlich__ncom__ndedateamof“dirtytricksters”whoperformedvariousactsofsabotageagainstprospectiveDemocraticcandidatesforthepresidencyincludingfalselyaccusingHubertHumphreyandSen.HenryJacksonof___ualimproprietiesforgingpressreleasesettingoffstink-bombsatDemocraticgatheringsandassociatingtheoppositioncandidateswithracistre__rks.Thecover-upunr__eledfurtherinApril1973whenL.PatrickGrayactingdirectoroftheFBIresignedafterconfessingthathehadconfiscatedanddestroyedseveralincriminatingdocuments.OnApril30Ehrlich__nandHalde__nresignedtogetherwithAttorney-GeneralRichardKlein___nst.AfewdayslaterNixonnervouslyassuredthepublicinatelevisionaddress:“I’mnotacrook.”Butneweviden__suggestedotherwise.JohnDeanwhomNixonhaddi__issedaspresidentialcounseltestifiedbeforetheErvinCommitteeandarapttelevisionau___n__thatNixonhadapprovedthecover-up.Inanother“bombshell”disclosureaWhiteHouseaidetoldthecommitteethatNixonhadinstalledatapingsystemintheWhiteHouseandthat__nyoftheconversationsaboutWatergatehadbeenrecorded.Ayear-longbattleforthe“Nixontapes”thenbegan.TheHarvardlawprofessorArchibaldCoxwhomNixonhadappointedasaspecialprosecutortohandletheWatergatecasetookthepresidenttocourtinOctober1973toobtainthetapes.Nixonpleading“executiveprivilege”refusedtoreleasethemandorderedCoxfired.Inwhatbecameknownasthe“SaturdayNight__ssacre”thenewattorney-generalElliotRichardsonandhisdeputyresignedratherthanexecutetheorder.Cox’srepla__mentasspecialprosecutorLeonJaworskiprovednomorepliablethanCoxandhealsotookthepresidenttocourt.OnJuly241974theSupremeCourtruledunanimouslythatthepresidentmustsurrenderthetapes.AfewdayslatertheHousejudiciaryCommitteevotedtorecommendthethreearticlesofimpeachment:obstructionofjusti__throughthepaymentof“hushmoney”towitnessesandwithholdingofeviden__;usingfederalagenciestodeprivecitizensoftheirconstitutionalrights;anddefian__ofCongressbywithholdingthetapes.ButbeforetheHouseofRepresentativescouldmeettovoteonimpeachmentNixonhandedoverthecompletesetofWhiteHousetapes.OnAugust91974fullyawarethattheeviden__onthetapesimplicatedhiminthecover-upRichardNixonresignedfromoffi__.EFFECTSOFWATERGATEVi__-presidentSpiroAgnewdidnotsuc__edNixonbecauseAgnewhimselfhadbeenfor__dtoresigninOctober1973whenitbecameknownthathehadac__ptedbribesfromcontractorsbeforeandduringhistermasvi__-president.Thevi__-presidentatthetimeofNixon’sresignationwasGeraldFordtheformerminorityleaderintheHousewhomNixonhadappointedwithCongressionalapprovalundertheprovisionsoftheTwenty-FifthAmendment
1967.FordinsistedthathehadnointentionofpardoningNixonwhowasstillliableforcriminalprosecution.“Idonotthinkthepublicwouldstandforit”predictedFord.ButamonthafterNixon’sresignationthenewpresidentissuedthepardonexplainingthatitwasne__ssarytoendthenationalobsessionwiththeWatergatescandals.__nysuspectedthatNixonandFordhad__deadealthoughtherewasnoeviden__toconfirmthespeculation.PresidentFordtestifiedpersonallytoacongressionalcommittee:“Therewasnodealperiod.”Butsuspicionsre__ined.IftherewasasliverlininginWatergate’sdarkclouditwasthevigorandresiliencyoftheinstitutionsthathadbroughtapresidentdownthepressCongressthecourtsandanarousedpublicopinion.TheWatergaterevelationsprovokedCongresstopassseveralpie__soflegislationdesignedtocurbexecutivepowerinthefuture.TheWarPowersAct1973requiredpresidentstoconsultwithCongressbeforesendingAmericantroopsintocombatabroadandtowithdrawtroopsaftersixtydaysunlessCongressspecificallyapprovedtheirstay.InanefforttocorrectabusesofcampaignfundsCongressenactedlegislationin1974thatsetnew__ilingsoncontributionsandexpenditures.AndinreactiontotheNixonclaimof“executiveprivilege”Congressstrengthenedthe1966_______ofInfor__tionActtorequirepromptresponsestorequestsforinfor__tionfromgover__entfilesandtopla__ongover__entagenciestheburdenofproofforclassifyinginfor__tion.ThenationhadweatheredaprofoundconstitutionalcrisisbuttheaftershockoftheWatergateepisodeprodu__dadeepsenseofdisillusio__entwiththeso-called“imperialpresidency.”Comingontheheelsoftheerosionofpublicconfiden__generatedbytheVietnamWartheWatergateaffairsrenewedpubliccynici__towardagover__entthathadsyste__ticallyliedtothepeopleandviolatedtheircivillibertiessaidonebumperstickeroftheday:“Don’tvote.Itonlyencouragesthem.”Nixon’sresignationpleasedhiscriticsbutalsoinitiatedaprolongedcrisisofconfiden__.A1974pollaskedpeoplehowmuchfaiththeyhadintheexecutivebranchofgover__ent.Only14per__ntanswered“agreatdeal”;43per__ntsaid“hardlyany.”Restoringcredibilityandrespectbecamethepri__rychallengefacingNixon’ssuc__ssors.Unfortunatelyanewarrayofeconomicandforeigncrisiswould__kethattaskdoublydifficult.-1-。