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CommonlawCommonlawreferstolawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawandthecorrespondinglegalsystemhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_systems_of_the_world\oLegalsystemsoftheworlddevelopedthroughdecisionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_opinion\oLegalopinionofcourtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Courts\oCourtsandsimilartribunalscalledcaselawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Case_law\oCaselawratherthanthroughlegislativestatuteshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Statute_law\oStatutelaworexecutiveactionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Executive_gover__ent\oExecutivegover__ent.Commonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawislawcreatedandrefinedbyjudgeshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Judge\oJudge:adecisioninacurrentlypendinglegalcasehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_case\oLegalcasedependsondecisionsinpreviouscasesandaffectsthelawtobeappliedinfuturecases.Whenthereisnoauthoritativestatementofthelawjudgesh__etheauthorityanddutyto__kelawbycreatingpre__denthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pre__dent\oPre__dent.Thebodyofpre__dentiscalledcommonlawanditbindsfuturedecisions.Infuturecaseswhenpartiesdisagreeonwhatthelawisanidealizedcommonlawcourtlookstopastpre__dentialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pre__dent\oPre__dentdecisionsofrelevantcourts.Ifasimilardisputehasbeenresolvedinthepastthecourtisboundhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Binding_pre__dent\oBindingpre__denttofollowthereasoningusedinthepriordecisionthisprincipleisknownasstaredecisishttp://en._________.org/wiki/Stare_decisis\oStaredecisis.Ifhoweverthecourtfindsthatthecurrentdisputeisfundamentallydistinctfromallpreviouscasesitwilldecideasa__tteroffirstimpressionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Case_of_first_impression\oCaseoffirstimpression.Thereafterthenewdecisionbecomespre__dentandwillbindfuturecourtsundertheprincipleofstaredecisishttp://en._________.org/wiki/Stare_decisis\oStaredecisis.Inpracti__commonlawsystemsareconsiderablymorecomplicatedthantheidealizedsystemdescribedabove.Thedecisionsofacourtarebindingonlyinaparticularjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdictionandevenwithinagivenjurisdictionsomecourtsh__emorepowerthanothers.Forexampleinmostjurisdictionsdecisionsbyappellatecourtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Appellate_courts\oAppellatecourtsarebindingonlowercourtsinthesamejurisdictionandonfuturedecisionsofthesameappellatecourtbutdecisionsofnon-appellatecourtsareonlynon-bindingpersuasiveauthority.Interactionsbetweencommonlawconstitutionallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitutional_law\oConstitutionallawstatutoryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Statutory\oStatutorylawandregulatorylawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Regulatory_law\oRegulatorylawalsogiverisetoconsiderablecomplexity.Howeverstaredecisistheprinciplethatsimilarcasesshouldbedecidedaccordingtoconsistentprincipledrulessothattheywillreachsimilarresultsliesattheheartofallcommonlawsystems.Commonlawlegalsystemsareinwidespreaduseparticularlyinthosenationswhichtra__theirlegalheritagetoBritainincludingtheUnitedKingdomhttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_Kingdom\oUnitedKingdommostoftheUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStatesandotherformercoloniesoftheBritishEmpirehttp://en._________.org/wiki/British_Empire\oBritishEmpiresuchasIndiahttp://en._________.org/wiki/India\oIndia
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oCanadahttp://en._________.org/wiki/Canada\oCanadaNewZealandhttp://en._________.org/wiki/New_Zealand\oNewZealandAustraliahttp://en._________.org/wiki/Australia\oAustraliaandHongKonghttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hong_Kong\oHongKong.
[3]http://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\lcite_note-2#cite_note-2\oInjunctionAninjunctionisanequitableremedyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Equitable_remedy\oEquitableremedyintheformofacourtorderhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Court_order\oCourtorderwherebya_____isrequiredtodoortorefrainfromdoing__rtainacts.The_____thatfailstoadheretotheinjunctionfa__scivilorcriminalpenaltiesand__yh__etopayda__gesorac__ptsanctionsforfailingtofollowthecourtsorder.Insomecasesbreachesofinjunctionsareconsideredseriouscriminaloffen__sthatmeritarrestandpossibleprisonsenten__s.MisrepresentationMisrepresentationisacontractlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract_law\oContractlawcon__pt.Itmeansafalsestatementoffact__debyone_____toanother_____whichhastheeffectofinducingthat_____intothecontract.Forexampleunder__rtaincircumstan__sfalsestatementsorpromises__debyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalityornatureoftheproductthatthesellerhas__yconstitutemisrepresentation.Afindingofmisrepresentationallowsforaremedyofrescissionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Rescission\oRescissionandsometimesda__geshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Da__ges\oDa__gesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.EstoppelEstoppelisalegalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawdoctrinehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Doctrine\oDoctrineatcommonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\oCommonlawwherea_____isbarredfromclaimingordenyinganargumentonanequitableground.Estoppelcomplementstherequirementofconsiderationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Consideration\oConsiderationincontractlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract_law\oContractlaw.Ingeneralestoppelprotectsanaggrieved_____ifthecounter-_____indu__danexpectationfromtheaggrieved_____andtheaggrieved_____reasonablyreliedontheexpectationandwouldsufferdetrimentiftheexpectationisnotmet.Alsounconscionabilityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Unconscionability\oUnconscionabilitybyabreaching_____isalsosufficienttoestopthebreaching_____.Estoppelisadefensethatpreventsarepresentorfromenforcinglegalrightshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Right\oRightorfromrelyingonasetoffactsthatwouldgiverisetoenfor__ablerightse.g.wordssaidoractionsperformedgenerallyonlyifthatenfor__mentorrelian__wouldbeunfairtotherepresentee.Becauseitseffectistodefeatgenerallyenfor__ablelegalrightsthescopeoftheremedyisoftenlimited.NotehoweverthatproprietaryestoppelapplicableinEnglishlandlawcanbebothaswordandashieldandthescopeofitsremedyiswide.Foranexampleofestoppelconsiderthecaseofadebtorandacreditor.Thecreditorhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Creditor\oCreditormightunofficiallyinformthedebtorhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Debtor\oDebtorthatthecreditorforgivesthedebthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Debt\oDebt.Evenifsuchforgivenessisnotfor__llydocumentedthecreditor__ybeestoppedfromchangingitsmindandseekingtocollectthedebtbecausethatchangewouldbeunfair.Inthesamewayalandlordhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Landlord\oLandlordmightinformatenanthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tenant\oTenantthatrenthasbeenredu__dforexampleiftherewasconstructionoralapseinutilityservi__s.Ifthetenantreliesonthisnoti__thelandlordcouldbeestoppedfromcollectingthefullrent.Estoppeliscloselyrelatedtothedoctrinesofwaivervariationandelectionandisappliedin__nyareasoflawincludinginsuran__bankingemploymentinternationaltradeetc.InEnglishlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/English_law\oEnglishlawthecon__ptoflegiti__teexpectationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legiti__te_expectation\oLegiti__teexpectationintherealmofadministrativelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Administrative_law\oAdministrativelawandjudicialreviewhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Judicial_review\oJudicialreviewisestoppelscounterpartinpubliclawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Public_law\oPubliclawalthoughsubtlebutimportantdifferen__sexist.ThistermappearstocomefromtheFrenchhttp://en._________.org/wiki/French_language\oFrenchlanguageestoupailoravariationwhichmeantstopperplugreferringtoplacingahaltontheimbalan__ofthesituation.ThetermisrelatedtotheverbestopwhichcomesfromtheOldFrenchtermestoppermeaningstopupimpede.NotethesimilaritybetweentheEnglishtermsestopandstop.CaselawCaselawalsoknownasdecisionallaworjudicialpre__dentisthegeneraltermfortheprinciplesandruleshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Rules\oRulesoflawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawsetforthinjudicialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Judge\oJudgeopinionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_opinion\oLegalopinionfromcourtsoflawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Courts_of_law\oCourtsoflaw.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Case_law\lcite_note-Walker-0#cite_note-Walker-0\oCaselawincorporatescourtsdecisionsfromindividualcaseshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_case\oLegalcaseandencompassescourtsinterpretationsofstatuteshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Statutes\oStatutesconstitutionalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitution\oConstitutionprovisionsadministrativehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Administrative_law\oAdministrativelawregulationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Regulations\oRegulationsandinsomecaseslaworiginatingsolelyfromthecourts.Caselawisoftenpublishedinprintlawreportsorreportershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law_report\oLawreportandincreasinglyoncourtwebsiteshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law_report\lOpen_publication_on_the_Internet\oLawreporttoestablishpre__denthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pre__dent\oPre__dent-rulestoapplyinfuturecourtdecisionsdealingwithsimilarsituations.Forcountrieswithacommonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\oCommonlawlegalsystemhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_system\oLegalsystemsuchasintheUnitedKingdomhttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_Kingdom\oUnitedKingdomUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStatesandmostoftheCommonwealthofNationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations\oCommonwealthofNationscaselawisa__jorsour__oflawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sour___of_law\oSour__oflaw.Ingeneralcourtsincommonlawcountriestreatthedecisionsofhigherappellatecourtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Appellate_courts\oAppellatecourtsasnor__tivehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Nor__tive\oNor__tive-layingdownrulesthatshouldorinsomecasesmustbeusedtodecidesimilarlegaldisputescalledbindingpre__denthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Binding_pre__dent\oBindingpre__dent.Incountrieswithlegalsystemsthatfollowthecivillawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Civil_law_legal_system\oCivillawlegalsystemtraditionderivedfromRo__nlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Ro__n_law\oRo__nlawhoweverthecourtsarenotstrictlyboundbyrulesandprinciplesfromcaselaw.StatuteStatutelawislaw__debyparliamentseg.thecrimesact1900__debynswparliamentAstatuteisafor__lwrittenenactmentofalegislativehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legislative\oLegislativeauthoritythatgovernsacountryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Country\oCountrystatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStatecityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/City\oCityorcountyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/County\oCounty.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Statute\lcite_note-Blacks-0#cite_note-Blacks-0\oTypicallystatutescom__ndorprohibitsomethingordeclarepolicy.Thewordisoftenusedtodistinguishlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLaw__debylegislativehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legislature\oLegislaturebo___sfromthejudicialdecisionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_opinions\oLegalopinionsofthecommonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\oCommonlawandtheregulationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Regulations\oRegulationsissuedbyGover__entagencieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Gover__ent_agencies\oGover__entagencies.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Statute\lcite_note-Blacks-0#cite_note-Blacks-0\oStatutesaresometimesreferredtoaslegislationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legislation\oLegislationorblackletterlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Black_letter_law\oBlackletterlaw.Asasour__oflawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawstatutesareconsideredpri__ryauthorityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pri__ry_authority\oPri__ryauthorityasopposedtosecondaryauthorityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Secondary_authority\oSecondaryauthority.Beforeastatutebecomeslawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawinsomecountriesitmustbeagreeduponbythehighestexecutivehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Executive_branch\oExecutivebranchinthegover__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Gover__ent\oGover__entandfinallypublishedaspartofacodehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Code_law\oCodelaw.In__nycountriesstatutesareorganizedintopicalarrangementsorcodifiedhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Codification\oCodificationwithinpublicationscalledcodeshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Code_law\oCodelawsuchastheUnitedStatesCodehttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States_Code\oUnitedStatesCode.IntheUnitedStatesstatutorylawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Statutory_law\oStatutorylawisdistinguishedfromandsubordinatetoconstitutionallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitutional_law\oConstitutionallaw.AgencylawAgencyisanareaofcommerciallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Commercial_law\oCommerciallawdealingwithacontractualhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractorquasi-contractualhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Quasi-contract\oQuasi-contracttripartitehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tripartite\oTripartiteornon-contractualsetofrelationshipswhenanagenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Agent_law\oAgentlawisauthorizedtoactonbehalfofanothercalledthePrincipalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Principal_law\oPrincipallawtocreatealegalrelationshipwithaThird_____.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Agency_law\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oSuccinctlyit__ybereferredtoastherelationshipbetweenaprincipalandanagentwherebytheprincipalexpresslyorimpliedlyauthorizestheagenttoworkunderhiscontrolandonhisbehalf.Theagentisthusrequiredtonegotiateonbehalfoftheprincipalorbringhimandthirdpartiesintocontractualrelationship.Thisbranchoflawseparatesandregulatestherelationshipsbetween:AgentsandPrincipals;AgentsandtheThirdPartieswithwhomtheydealontheirPrincipalsbehalf;andPrincipalsandtheThirdPartieswhentheAgentspurporttodealontheirbehalf.Thecommonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\oCommonlawprincipleinoperationisusuallyrepresentedintheLatinhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Latin\oLatinphrasequifacitperaliumfacitpersei.e.theonewhoactsthroughanotheractsinhisorherowninterestsanditisaparallelcon__pttovicariousliabilityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Vicarious_liability\oVicariousliabilityandstrictliabilityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Strict_liability\oStrictliabilityinwhichonepersonisheldliableinCriminallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Criminal_law\oCriminallaworTorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\oTortfortheactsoromissionsofanother.GoodfaithGoodfaithorinLatinhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Latin_language\oLatinlanguagebonafidesbonafidemeansingoodfaithisthementalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Mental_state\oMentalstateandmoralstatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Morality\oMoralityofhonestyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Honesty\oHonestyconvictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Belief\oBeliefastothetruthhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Truth\oTruthorfalsehoodhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Falsehood\oFalsehoodofapropositionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Proposition\oPropositionorbodyofopinionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Opinion\oOpinionorastotherectitudeordepr__ityofalineofconducthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Conduct\oConduct.Thiscon__ptisimportantinlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawespeciallyequitable__tters.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Good_faith\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oIncontemporaryEnglishbonafidesissometimesusedasasynonymhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Synonym\oSynonymforcredentialshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Credential\oCredentialbackgroundordocumentationofapersonsidentityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Identity_document\oIdentitydocument.Showmeyourbonafidescanmean:WhyshouldItrustyouyourgoodfaithinthis__tter____mewhoyouare.Inthissensethephraseissometimesusedinjobadvertisementsandshouldnotbeconfusedwiththebonafideoccupationalqualificationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Bona_fide_occupational_qualifications\oBonafideoccupationalqualificationsortheemployersgoodfaitheffortasdescribedbelow.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Good_faith\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oCommissionerCommissionerisinprincipalthetitlegiventotheholderofacommissionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Commission\oCommissioninthesenseofa__ndatewhetherindividuallyorsharednotablyasmemberofacollegialcommission.Inpracti__thetitleofcommissionerhasevolvedtoincludeavarietyofseniorofficialsoftensittingonaspecificcommission.Inparticularcommissionerfrequentlyreferstoseniorpoli__http://en._________.org/wiki/Poli__\oPoli__orgover__entofficials.AHighCommissionerisequivalenttoanambassadorhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Ambassador\oAmbassadorbetweenCommonwealthstatessharingthesameMonarchasheadofstate.Thetitleisalsosometimesgiventoseniorofficialsintheprivatesectorforinstan____nyNorthAmericanhttp://en._________.org/wiki/North_America\oNorthAmericasportshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sport\oSportleagues.PartnershipApartnershipisatypeofbusinessentityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Business_entity\oBusinessentityinwhichpartnersownerssharewitheachothertheprofitsorlossesofthebusinessundertakinginwhichallh__einvested.Partnershipsareoftenf__oredovercorporationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationfortaxationpurposesasthepartnershipstructuredoesnotgenerallyincurataxonprofitsbeforeitisdistributedtothepartnersi.e.thereisnodividendtaxhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dividend_tax\oDividendtaxlevied.Howeverdependingonthepartnershipstructureandthejurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdictioninwhichitoperatesownersofapartnership__ybeexposedtogreaterpersonalliabilitythantheywouldasshareholdershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shareholder\oShareholderofacorporation.JointandseveralliabilityUnderjointandseveralliabilityaclai__nt__ypursueanobligationagainstanyone_____asiftheywerejointlyliableanditbecomestheresponsibilityofthedefendantstosortouttheirrespectiveproportionsofliabilityandpayment.Thismeansthatiftheclai__ntpursuesonedefendantandre__ivespaymentthatdefendantmustthenpursuetheotherobligorsforacontributiontotheirshareoftheliability.Jointandseveralliabilityismostrelevantintorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\oTortclaimswherebyaplaintiffhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Plaintiff\oPlaintiff__yrecoveralltheda__geshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Da__ges\oDa__gesfromanyofthedefendantshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Defendant\oDefendantregardlessoftheirindividualshareoftheliability.Theruleisoftenappliedinnegligen__http://en._________.org/wiki/Negligen__\oNegligen__casesthoughitissometimesinvokedinotherareasoflaw.IntheUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStates46ofthe50stateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/U.S._states\oU.S.statesh__earuleofjointandseveralliabilityalthoughinresponsetotortreformhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort_reform\oTortreformeffortssomeh__elimitedtheapplicabilityoftherule.TortTortlawisthenamegiventoabodyoflawthataddressesandprovidesreme___sforcivilwrongsnotarisingoutofcontractualhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractobligations.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oApersonwhosufferslegalda__geshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Da__ges\oDa__ges__ybeabletousetortlawtore__ivecompensationfromsomeonewhoislegallyresponsiblehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Liability\oLiabilityorliableforthoseinjuries.Generallyspeakingtortlawdefineswhatconstitutesalegalinjuryandestablishesthecircumstan__sunderwhichoneperson__ybeheldliableforanothersinjury.Tortscoverintentionalactsandaccidents.Forinstan__Alicethrowsaballandaccidentallyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Accident\oAccidenthitsBrendaintheeye.Brenda__ysueAliceforlossesoccasionedbytheaccidente.g.costsofmedicaltreatmentlostincomeduringtimeoffworkpainandsufferingetc..WhetherornotBrendawinshersuithttp://en._________.org/wiki/Lawsuit\oLawsuitdependsonifshecanproveAliceengagedintortiousconduct.HereBrendawouldattempttoprovehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof\oBurdenofproofAlicehadadutyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Duty_of_care\oDutyofcareandfailedtoexercisethestandardofcarehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Standard_of_care\oStandardofcarewhichareasonablepersonhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Reasonable_person\oReasonablepersonwouldrenderinthrowingtheball.Oneofthe__intopicsofthesubstan__oftortlawisdeterminingthestandardofcarehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Standard_of_care\oStandardofcare-alegalphrasethatmeansdistinguishingbetweenwhenconductisorisnottortious.Putanotherwaythebigissueiswhetherapersonsuffersthelossfromhisowninjuryorwhetheritgetstransferredtosomeoneelse.GoingbacktotheexampleaboveifAlicethrewtheballatBrendaonpurposeBrendacouldsuefortheintentionaltorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Intentional_tort\oIntentionaltortofbatteryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Battery_tort\oBatterytort.IfitwasanaccidentBrendamustprovenegligen__http://en._________.org/wiki/Negligen__\oNegligen__.TodothisBrendamustshowthatherinjurywasreasonablyforeseeablethatAliceowedBrendaadutyofcarehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Duty_of_care\oDutyofcarenottohitherwiththeballandthatAlicefailedtomeetthestandardofcarehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Standard_of_care\oStandardofcarerequired.Inmuchofthewesternworldthetouchstoneoftortliabilityisnegligen__http://en._________.org/wiki/Negligen__\oNegligen__.Iftheinjured_____cannotprovethatthepersonbelievedtoh__ecausedtheinjuryactedwithnegligen__attheveryleasttortlawwillnotcompensatethem.Tortlawalsorecognizesintentionaltortshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Intentional_torts\oIntentionaltortsandstrictliabilityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Strict_liability\oStrictliabilitywhichapplytodefendantswhoengagein__rtainactions.Intortlawinjuryisdefinedbroadly.InjurydoesnotjustmeanaphysicalinjurysuchaswhereBrendawasstruckbyaball.Injuriesintortlawreflectanyinvasionofanynumberofindividualinterests.Thisincludesinterestsrecognizedinotherareasoflawsuchaspropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property\oPropertyrights.Actionsfornuisan__http://en._________.org/wiki/Nuisan__\oNuisan__andtrespasshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Trespass\oTrespasstolandcanarisefrominterferingwithrightsinrealproperty.Conversionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Conversion_law\oConversionlawandtrespasstochattelscanprotectinterferen__withmovableproperty.Interestsinprospectiveeconomicadvantagesfromcontractshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contracts\oContractscanalsobeinjuredandbecomethesu__ectoftortactions.Anumberofsituationscausedbypartiesinacontractualrelationship__yneverthelessbetortratherthancontractclaimssuchasbreachoffiduciarydutyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Fiduciary_duty\oFiduciaryduty.Tortlaw__yalsobeusedtocompensateforinjuriestoanumberofotherindividualintereststhatarenotrecognizedinpropertyorcontractlawandareintangible.Thisincludesaninterestin_______fromemotionaldistressprivacyinterestsandreputation.Theseareprotectedbyanumberoftortssuchasinflictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Intentional_infliction_of_emotional_distress\oIntentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressprivacyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Privacy\oPrivacytortsanddefa__tionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Defa__tion\oDefa__tion.Defa__tionandprivacytorts__yforexampleallowa__lebritytosueanewspaperforpublishinganuntrueandharmfulstatementabouthim.Otherprotectedinterestsinclude_______ofmovementprotectedbytheintentionaltortoffalseimpriso__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/False_impriso__ent\oFalseimpriso__ent.Theequivalentoftortincivillawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Civil_law_legal_system\oCivillawlegalsystemjurisdictionsisdelicthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Delict\oDelict.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oThelawoftortscanbecategorisedaspartofthelawofobligationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law_of_obligations\oLawofobligationsbutunlikevoluntarilyassumedobligationssuchasthoseofcontractortrustthedutiesimposedbythelawoftortsapplytoallthosesu__ecttotherelevantjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdiction.Tobeh__eintortious__nneristoharmanothersbodyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hu__n_rights\oHu__nrightspropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property_rights\oPropertyrightsorlegalrightsorpossiblytobreachadutyowedunderstatutehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Statutory_law\oStatutorylaw.Onewhocommitsatortiousactiscalledatortfeasor.
[3]http://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\lcite_note-2#cite_note-2\oTortsisoneoftheAmericanBarAssociationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/American_Bar_Association\oAmericanBarAssociation__ndatoryfirstyearlawschoolcourses.
[4]http://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\lcite_note-3#cite_note-3\oPiercingthecorporateveilThecorporatelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporations_law\oCorporationslawcon__ptofpiercingliftingthecorporateveildescribesalegaldecisionwhereashareholderordirectorofacorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationisheldliableforthedebtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Debts\oDebtsorliabilitiesofthecorporationdespitethegeneralprinciplethatshareholdersareimmunefromsuitsincontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractortorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\oTortthatotherwisewouldholdonlythecorporationliable.Thisdoctrineisalsoknownasdisregardingthecorporateentityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Entity\oEntity.Thephrasereliesonametaphorofaveilthatrepresentstheveneeroffor__litiesanddignitiesthatprotectacorporationwhichcanbedisregardedatwillwhenthesituationwarrantslookingbeyondthelegalfictionofacorporatepersontotherealityofotherpersonsorentitieswhowouldotherwisebeprotectedbythecorporatefiction.Piercingthecorporateveilisnottheonlymeansbywhichadirectororoffi__rofacorporationcanbeheldliablefortheactionsofthecorporation.Liabilitycanbeestablishedthroughconventionaltheoriesofcontractagencyortortlaw.Forexampleinsituationswhereadirectororoffi__ractingonbehalfofacorporationpersonallycommitsatorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\oTortheandthecorporationarejointlyliableanditisunne__ssarytodiscusstheissueofpiercingthecorporateveil.Thedoctrineisoftenusedincaseswhereliabilityisfoundbutthecorporationisinsolvent.ParentcompanyAparentcompanyisacompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Company\oCompanythatownsenoughvotingstockhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Voting_share\oVotingshareinanotherfirmtocontrol__nagementandoperationsbyinfluencingorelectingitsboardofdirectorshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Board_of_directors\oBoardofdirectors;thesecondcompanybeingdeemedasasubsidiaryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Subsidiary\oSubsidiaryoftheparentcompany.Thedefinitionofaparentcompanydiffersfromjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdictiontojurisdictionwiththedefinitionnor__llybeingdefinedbywayoflawsdealingwithcompanieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Companies_law\oCompanieslawinthatjurisdiction.SubsidiaryAsubsidiaryinbusiness__ttersisanentitythatiscontrolledbyabiggerandmorepowerfulentity.Thecontrolledentityiscalledacompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Company_law\oCompanylawcorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationorlimitedliabilitycompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Limited_liability_company\oLimitedliabilitycompanyandthecontrollingentityiscalleditsparentortheparentcompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Parent_company\oParentcompany.Thereasonforthisdistinctionisthatalonecompanycannotbeasubsidiaryofanyorganization;onlyanentityrepresentingalegalfictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_fiction\oLegalfictionasaseparateentitycanbeasubsidiary.Whileindividualsh__ethecapacitytoactontheirowninitiativeabusinessentitycanonlyactthroughitsdirectorsoffi__rsandemployees.Themostcommonwaythatcontrolofasubsidiaryisachievedisthroughtheownershipofshareshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Share_finan__\oSharefinan__inthesubsidiarybytheparent.Thesesharesgivetheparentthene__ssaryvotestodeterminethecompositionoftheboardofthesubsidiaryandsoexercisecontrol.Thisgivesrisetothecommonpresumptionthat50%plusoneshareisenoughtocreateasubsidiary.Therearehoweverotherwaysthatcontrolcancomeaboutandtheexactrulesbothastowhatcontrolisneededandhowitisachievedcanbecomplexseebelow.Asubsidiary__yitselfh__esubsidiariesandtheseinturn__yh__esubsidiariesoftheirown.Aparentandallitssubsidiariestogetherarecalledagroupalthoughthistermcanalsoapplytocooperatingcompaniesandtheirsubsidiarieswithvaryingdegreesofsharedownership.Subsidiariesareseparatedistinctlegalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Commercial_law\oCommerciallawentitiesforthepurposesoftaxationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tax\oTaxandregulationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Regulation\oRegulation.Forthisreasontheydifferfromdivisionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Division_organisation\oDivisionorganisationwhicharebusinessesfullyintegratedwithinthe__incompanyandnotlegallyorotherwisedistinctfromit.AnoperatingsubsidiaryisabusinesstermfrequentlyusedwithintheUnitedStatesrailroadhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Railroad\oRailroadindustry.Inthecaseofarailroaditreferstoacompanythatisasubsidiarybutoperateswithitsownidentitylocomotivesandrollingstockhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Rolling_stock\oRollingstock.Incontrastanon-operatingsubsidiarywouldexistonpaperonlyi.e.stocksbondsarticlesofincorporationandwouldusetheidentityandrollingstockoftheparentcompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Parent_company\oParentcompany.BranchAbranchisawoodystructuralmemberhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Limb_anatomy\oLimbanatomyconnectedtobutnotpartofthe__ntraltrunkhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Trunk_botany\oTrunkbotanyofatreehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tree\oTreeorsometimesashrubhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shrub\oShrub.Largebranchesareknownasboughsand__allbranchesareknownastwigs.Whilebranchescanbenearlyhorizontalverticalordiagonalthe__jorityoftreesh__eupwardlydiagonalbranches.ArticlesofIncorporationTheArticlesofIncorporationsometimesalsoreferredtoasthe__rtificateofIncorporationortheCorporateCharterarethepri__ryrulesgoverningthe__nagementofacorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationintheUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStatesandarefiledwithastatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateorotherregulatoryagency.TheequivalentintheUnitedKingdomhttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_Kingdom\oUnitedKingdomandvariousothercountriesisArticlesofAssociationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Articles_of_association_law\oArticlesofassociationlaw.BylawAbylawsometimesalsospelledby-laworbyelawmostcommonlyreferstoacityormunicipallaworordinan__passedundertheauthorityofacharterhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Charter\oCharterorprovincial/statelawspecifyingwhatthings__yberegulatedbythemunicipalityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Municipality\oMunicipality.LiabilityInthemostgeneralsensealiabilityisanythingthatisahindran__http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hindran__\owikt:hindran__orputsindividualsatadisadvantage.Itcanalsobeusedasaslangtermtodescribesomeonethatputsateamorgroupofwhichtheyareamemberatadisadvantageandwouldthusbebetteroffwithout.CapitaleconomicsIneconomicshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Economics\oEconomicscapitalorcapitalgoodshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Goods\oGoodsorrealcapitalreferstofactorsofproductionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Factors_of_production\oFactorsofproductionusedtocreategoodsorservi__shttp://en._________.org/wiki/Servi__s\oServi__sthatarenotthemselvessignificantlyconsumedthoughthey__ydepreciatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Depreciation\oDepreciationintheproductionpro__ss.Capitalgoodshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Capital_goods\oCapitalgoods__ybeacquiredwithmoneyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Money\oMoneyorfinancialcapitalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Financial_capital\oFinancialcapital.Infinan__http://en._________.org/wiki/Finan__\oFinan__andaccountinghttp://en._________.org/wiki/Accounting\oAccountingcapitalgenerallyreferstofinancialwealthhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Wealth_economics\oWealtheconomicsespeciallythatusedtostartor__intainabusiness.AuthorisedcapitalTheauthorisedcapitalofacompanyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Company_law\oCompanylawsometimesreferredtoastheauthorisedsharecapitalorthenominalcapitalparticularlyintheUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStatesisthe__ximumamountofsharecapitalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Share_capital\oSharecapitalthatthecompanyisauthorisedbyitsconstitutionaldocumentshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitutional_documents\oConstitutionaldocumentstoissuetoshareholdershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Stockholder\oStockholder.Partoftheauthorisedcapitalcanandfrequentlydoesre__inunissued.Thepartoftheauthorisedcapitalwhichhasbeenissuedtoshareholdersisreferredtoastheissuedsharecapitalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Issued_share_capital\oIssuedsharecapitalofthecompany.SharecapitalSharecapitalorissuedcapitalUKEnglishorcapitalstockUSEnglish
[1]http://___.intra__n.org/tfs/docs/glossary/se.htm\ohttp://___.intra__n.org/tfs/docs/glossary/se.htmreferstotheportionofacompanysequityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shareholders%27_equity\oShareholdersequitythathasbeenobtainedorwillbeobtainedbytradingstocktoashareholderforcashhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Cash\oCashoranequivalentitemofcapitalvalue.Forexampleacompanycansetasidesharecapitaltoexchangeforcomputerserversinsteadofdirectlypurchasingtheserversfromexistingequity.Thepaid-upcapitaldoesnotspeakabouttheshares.PreferredstockPreferredstockalsocalledpreferredsharesorpreferen__sharesistypicallyahigherrankingstockthanvotingshareshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Voting_shares\oVotingsharesanditstermsarenegotiatedbetweenthecorporationandtheinvestor.Preferredstockusuallycarriesnovotingrights
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Preferred_share\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\o
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Preferred_share\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\obut__ycarrysuperiorpriorityovercommonstockhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_stock\oCommonstockinthepaymentofdividendsanduponliquidationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Liquidation\oLiquidation.Preferredstock__ycarryadividendhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dividend\oDividendthatispaidoutpriortoanydividendsbeingpaidtocommonstockholders.Preferredstock__yh__eaconvertibilityfeatureintocommonstock.Preferredstockholderswillbepaidoutinassetsbeforecommonstockholdersandafterdebtholdersinbankruptcy.Termsofthepreferredstockarestatedina__rtificateofDesignation.ConsolidationbusinessConsolidationora__lga__tionistheactofmerging__nythingsintoone.Inbusinesshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Business\oBusinessitoftenreferstothemergershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Merger\oMergeroracquisitionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Acquisition\oAcquisitionof__ny__allercompanieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Companies\oCompaniesintomuchlargerones.Thefinancialaccountinghttp://en._________.org/wiki/Financial_accounting\oFinancialaccountingtermofconsolidationreferstotheaggregatedfinancialstatementshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Financial_statements\oFinancialstatementsofagroupcompanyasconsolidatedaccounthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Consolidated_account\oConsolidatedaccount.Thetaxationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Taxation\oTaxationtermofconsolidationreferstothetreatmentofagroupofcompaniesandotherentitiesasoneentityfortaxpurposes.UndertheHal__urysLawsofEnglandhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hal__ury%27s_Laws_of_England\oHal__urysLawsofEnglanda__lga__tionisdefinedasablendingtogetheroftwoormoreundertakingsintooneundertakingtheshareholdersofeachblendingcompanybecomingsubstantiallytheshareholdersoftheblendedundertakings.There__ybea__lga__tionseitherbytransferoftwoormoreundertakingstoanewcompanyortothetransferofoneormorecompaniestoanexistingcompany.Thusthetwocon__ptsaresubstantiallythesame.Howevertheterma__lga__tionismorecommonwhentheorganizationsbeingmergedareprivateschoolsorregiments.Non-executivedirectorAnon-executivedirectorNEDalsoNXDoroutsidedirectorisamemberoftheboardofdirectorshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Board_of_directors\oBoardofdirectorsofacompanywhodoesnotformpartoftheexecutive__nagementteam.Heorsheisnotanemployeeofthecompanyoraffiliatedwithitinanyotherway.Theyaredifferentiatedfrominsidedirectorshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Inside_director\oInsidedirectorwhoaremembersoftheboardalsoservingasexecutive__nagersofthecompanymostoftenascorporateoffi__rshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporate_offi__r\oCorporateoffi__r.BusinessjudgmentruleThebusinessjudgmentruleisanAmericancaselawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Case_law\oCaselaw-derivedcon__ptinCorporationslawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporations_law\oCorporationslawwherebythedirectorsofacorporation...areclothedwith[the]presumptionwhichthelawaccordstothemofbeing[motivated]intheirconductbyabonafideregardfortheinterestsofthecorporationwhoseaffairsthestockholdersh__ecommittedtotheircharge
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Business_Judgement_Rule\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oandwherebyacourthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Court\oCourtwillrefusetoreviewtheactionsofacorporationsboardofdirectorshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Board_of_directors\oBoardofdirectorsin__nagingthecorporationunlessthereissomeallegationofconductthatthedirectorsviolatedtheirdutyofcarehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Duty_of_care\lDuty_of_Care_in_Business\oDutyofcareto__nagethecorporationtothebestoftheirability.Theburdenisonthe_____challengingthedecisiontoestablishfactsrebuttingthepresumption.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Business_Judgement_Rule\lcite_note-Aronson-1#cite_note-Aronson-1\oDerivativesuitAshareholderderivativesuitisalawsuithttp://en._________.org/wiki/Lawsuit\oLawsuitbroughtbyashareholderhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shareholder\oShareholderonbehalfofacorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationagainstathird_____.Oftenthethird_____isaninsiderhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Insider\oInsiderofthecorporationsuchasanexecutiveoffi__rordirector.Shareholderderivativesuitsareuniquebecauseundertraditionalcorporatelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporation__nagementisresponsibleforbringinganddefendingthecorporationagainstsuit.Shareholderderivativesuitspermitashareholdertoinitiateasuitwhen__nagementhasfailedtodoso.Becausederivativesuitsvarythetraditionalrolesof__nagementandshareholders__nyjurisdictionsh__eimplementedvariouspro__duralrequirementstoderivativesuits.MergersandacquisitionsThephrasemergersandacquisitionsabbreviatedMAreferstotheaspectofcorporatestrategycorporatefinan__and__nagementhttp://en._________.org/wiki/__nagement\o__nagementdealingwiththebuyingsellingandcombiningofdifferentcompanieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationthatcanaidfinan__orhelpagrowingcompanyinagivenindustrygrowrapidlywithouth__ingtocreateanotherbusinessentity.ContractAcontractisanexchangehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Exchange\oExchangeofpromiseshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Promise\oPromisebetweentwoormorepartiestodoorrefrainfromdoinganactwhichisenfor__ablehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Enfor__able\oEnfor__ableinacourtoflawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Court_of_law\oCourtoflaw.Itisabindinglegalagreement.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oThatistosayacontractisanexchangeofpromisesforthebreachofwhichthelawwillprovidearemedy.Agreementissaidtobereachedwhenanoffercapableofimmediateac__ptan__ismetwithamirrori__geac__ptan__ieanunqualifiedac__ptan__.Thepartiesmusth__ethene__ssarycapacitytocontractandthecontractmustnotbeeithertriflingindeterminateimpossibleorillegal.ContractlawisbasedontheprincipleexpressedintheLatinhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Latin\oLatinphrasepactasuntservandahttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pacta_sunt_servanda\oPactasuntservandausuallytranslatedpactshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pact\oPactmustbekeptbutmoreliterallyagreementsaretobekept.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oBreachofcontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Breach_of_contract\oBreachofcontractisrecognizedbythelawandreme___shttp://en._________.org/wiki/Legal_remedy\oLegalremedycanbeprovided.Sometimeswrittencontractshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Written_contracts\oWrittencontractsarerequiredsuchaswhenbuyingahousehttp://en._________.org/wiki/House\oHouse.
[3]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\lcite_note-2#cite_note-2\oHowevermostcontractscanbeandare__deorallyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Oral_contract\oOralcontractsuchaspurchasingabookorasandwich.Contractlawcanbeclassifiedasishabitualincivillawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Civil_law_legal_system\oCivillawlegalsystemsystemsaspartofagenerallawofobligationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law_of_obligations\oLawofobligationsalongwithtorthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tort\oTortunjustenrichmenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Unjust_enrichment\oUnjustenrichmentorrestitutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Restitution\oRestitution.ConsiderationConsiderationisacon__ptoflegalvalueincontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractlaw.Itisapromisedactionoromissionofactionthatthepromiseedidnotalreadyh__eapre-existingdutytoabideby.Itcantaketheformofmoneyphysicalo__ectsservi__soraforbearan__ofaction.Bothpartiestoacontractmustpassconsiderationtotheother_____fortheretobeavalidcontract.HoweverevenifacourtdecidesthereisnocontracttheremightbeapossiblerecoveryunderQuantummeruithttp://en._________.org/wiki/Quantum_meruit\oQuantummeruitsometimesreferredtoasaQuasi-contracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Quasi-contract\oQuasi-contractorpromissoryestoppelhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Estoppel\lPromissory_estoppel\oEstoppel.ProprietaryestoppelThetraditionalversionofproprietaryestoppelarisesinrelationtorightstousethelandoftheownerand__yevenbeeffectiveinconnectionwithdisputedtransfersofownership.Soif:one_____representsthatheorsheistransferringaninterestinlandtoanotherbutwhatisdonehasnolegaleffectormerelypromisesatsometimeinthefuturetotransferlandoraninterestinlandtoanotherandknowsthattheother_____willspendmoneyorotherwiseacttohisorherdetrimentinrelian__onthesupposedorpromisedtransferanestoppel__yarise.ThusinDillwynvLlwellyn18624DeG.F.J.517C.A.afatherpromisedahousetohissonwhotookpossessionandspentalargesumofmoneyimprovingtheproperty.Thefatherneveractuallytransferredthehousetotheson.Whenhisfather___dthesonclaimedtobetheequitableownerandthecourtorderedthetestamentarytrusteestoconveythelandtohim.InWilmottvBarber188015ChD96FryJconsideredthatfiveelementshadtobeestablishedbeforeproprietaryestoppelcouldoperate:theplaintiffmusth__e__deamistakeastohislegalrights;theplaintiffmusth__edonesomeactofrelian__;thedefendantthepossessorofalegalrightmustknowoftheexisten__ofhisownrightwhichisinconsistentwiththerightclaimedbytheplaintiff;thedefendantmustknowoftheplaintiffsmistakenbelief;andthedefendantmusth__eencouragedtheplaintiffinhisactofrelian__.Althoughproprietaryestoppelwasonlytraditionally__ailableindisputesaffectingtitletorealpropertyithasnowgainedlimitedac__ptan__inotherareasoflaw.ProprietaryestoppeliscloselyrelatedtothedoctrineofconstructivetrustseenowCobbevYeo__nsRow
[2008]UKHL
55.ThetermproprietaryestoppelisnotusedinAmericanlawbutispartandpar__lofthegeneraldoctrineofpromissoryestoppel.InEnglishlawproprietaryestoppelisdistinctfrompromissoryestoppel.MistakecontractlawIncontractlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract_law\oContractlawamistakeisanerroneousbeliefatcontractingthat__rtainfactsaretrue.It__ybeusedasgroundstoinvalidatetheagreement.Commonlawhasidentifiedtwodifferenttypesofmistakeincontract:unilateralmistakeandmutualmistakesometimescalledcommonmistake.MisrepresentationMisrepresentationisacontractlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract_law\oContractlawcon__pt.Itmeansafalsestatementoffact__debyone_____toanother_____whichhastheeffectofinducingthat_____intothecontract.Forexampleunder__rtaincircumstan__sfalsestatementsorpromises__debyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalityornatureoftheproductthatthesellerhas__yconstitutemisrepresentation.Afindingofmisrepresentationallowsforaremedyofrescissionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Rescission\oRescissionandsometimesda__geshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Da__ges\oDa__gesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.AccordingtoGordonv.Selicohttp://en._________.org/w/index.phptitle=Gordon_v._Selicoaction=editredlink=1\oGordonv.Selicopagedoesnotexist198618HLR219itispossibleto__keamisrepresentationeitherbywordsorbyconductalthoughnoteverythingsaidordoneiscapableofconstitutingamisrepresentation.Generallystatementsofopinionorintentionarenotstatementsoffactinthecontextofmisrepresentation.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Misrepresentation\lcite_note-Opinion_and_intention-0#cite_note-Opinion_and_intention-0\oIfone_____claimsspecialistknowledgeonthetopicdiscussedthenitismorelikelyforthecourtstoholdastatementofopinionbythat_____asastatementoffact.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Misrepresentation\lcite_note-Opinion_as_fact-1#cite_note-Opinion_as_fact-1\oLiquidatedda__gesLiquidatedda__gesalsoreferredtoasliquidatedandas__rtainedda__gesareda__geswhoseamountthepartiesdesignateduringthefor__tionofacontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contracts\oContractsfortheinjured_____tocollectascompensationuponaspecificbreache.g.lateperfor__n__.Whenda__gesarenotpredetermined/assessedinadvan__thentheamountrecoverableissaidtobeatlargetobeagreedordeterminedbyacourtortribunalintheeventofbreach.Paroleviden__ruleTheparoleviden__ruleisthelegalapplicationofaruleofsubstantivelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Substantive_law\oSubstantivelawincontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractcasesthatpreventsa_____toawrittencontractfromcontradictingorsometimesaddingtothetermsofthecontractbyseekingtheadmissionofeviden__http://en._________.org/wiki/Eviden___law\oEviden__lawextrinsicoutsidetothecontract.ForexampleCarlagreesinwritingtosellBettyacarfor$
1000.BettyarguesthatCarltoldherthatshewouldonlyneedtopayCarl$
800.Theparoleviden__rulewouldgenerallypreventBettyfromtestifyingtothisconversationbecausethetestimony$800woulddirectlycontradictthewrittencontractsterms$
1000.FrustrationofpurposeInthelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawofcontractshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractfrustrationofpurposeisadefensetoenfor__mentofthecontract.Frustrationofpurposeoccurswhenanunforeseeneventunderminesa_____sprincipalpurposeforenteringintoacontractandbothpartiesknewofthisprincipalpurposeatthetimethecontractwas__de.Despitefrequentlyarisingasaresultofgover__entactionanythird_____orevennaturecanfrustrateacontracting_____spri__rypurposeforenteringintothecontract.WarrantyIncommercialandconsumertransactionsawarrantyisanobligationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Obligation\oObligationorguaranteethatanarticlehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Article_publishing\oArticlepublishingorservi__http://en._________.org/wiki/Servi___economics\oServi__economicssoldisasfactuallystatedorlegallyimpliedbythesellerhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Seller\oSellerandthatoftenprovidesforaspecificremedysuchasrepairhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Repair\oRepairorrepla__mentintheeventthearticleorservi__failstomeetthewarranty.Abreachofwarrantyoccurswhenthepromiseisbrokeni.e.aproductisdefectiveornotasshouldbeexpectedbyareasonablebuyer.AnticipatoryrepudiationAnticipatoryrepudiationoranticipatorybreachisaterminthelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawofcontractshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contracts\oContractsthatdescribesadeclarationbyone_____thepromising_____toacontractthatshedoesnotintendtoliveuptoherobligationsunderthecontract.Wheresuchaneventoccurstheother_____theperforming_____tothecontractisexcusedfromh__ingtofulfillhisobligations.Howevertherepudiationcanberetractedbythepromising_____solongastherehasbeenno__terialchangeinthepositionoftheperforming_____intheinterim.Aretractionoftherepudiationrestorestheperformersobligationtoperformonthecontract.TenderofferTenderofferisacorporatefinan__http://en._________.org/wiki/Corporate_finan__\oCorporatefinan__termdenotingatypeoftakeoverhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Takeover\oTakeoverbid.Thetenderofferisapublicopenofferusuallyannoun__dinanewspaperadvertisementbyanacquirertoallstockholdershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shareholders\oShareholdersofapubliclytradedhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Public_company\oPubliccompanycorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporationtotendertheirstockhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Shares\oSharesforsaleataspecifiedpri__duringaspecifiedtimesu__ecttothetenderingofaminimumand__ximumnumberofshares.Intenderoffersthebiddercontactsshareholdersdirectlyinvitingthemtoselltheirsharesatanofferpri__.Thedirectorsofthecompany__yor__ynoth__eendorsedthetenderofferproposal.IntheUnitedStatestenderoffersareregulatedbytheWilliamsActhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Williams_Act\oWilliamsAct.Ac__ptan__Ac__ptan__usuallyreferstocaseswhereapersonexperien__sasituationorconditionoftenanegativeoruncomfortablesituationwithoutattemptingtochangeitprotestorexit.Thetermisusedinspiritualityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Spirituality\oSpiritualityinEasternreligiouscon__ptssuchasBuddhisthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Buddhist\oBuddhistmindfulnesshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Mindfulness\oMindfulnessandinhu__nhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hu__n\oHu__npsychologyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Psychology\oPsychology.Religionsandpsychologicaltreatmentsoftensuggestthepathofac__ptan__whenasituationisbothdislikedandunchangeableorwhenchange__ybepossibleonlyatgreatcostorrisk.Ac__ptan____yimplyonlyalackofoutwardbeh__ioralattemptsatpossiblechangebutthewordisalsousedmorespecificallyforafeltorhypothesizedcognitivehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Cognitive\oCognitiveoremotionalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Emotional\oEmotionalstate.Thussomeone__ydecidetotakenoactionagainstasituationandyetbesaidtoh__enotac__ptedit.FundamentalbreachAfundamentalbreachofacontracthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contract\oContractsometimesknownasarepudiatorybreachisabreachhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Breach_of_contract\oBreachofcontractsofundamentalthatitpermitsthedistressed_____toterminateperfor__n__ofthecontractinadditiontoentitlingthat_____tosueforda__ges.LienInlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawalienisaformofsecurityinteresthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Security_interest\oSecurityinterestgrantedoveranitemofpropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property\oPropertytosecurethepaymentofadebthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Debt\oDebtorperfor__n__ofsomeotherobligation.Theownerofthepropertywhograntsthelienisreferredtoasthelienorandthepersonwhohasthebenefitofthelienisreferredtoasthelienee.TreatyAtreatyisanagreementunderinternationallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_law\oInternationallawenteredintobyactorsininternationallawnamelystateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateandinternationalorganizationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_organizations\oInternationalorganizations.Atreaty__yalsobeknownas:internationalagreementprotocolcovenantconventionexchangeoflettersetc.Regardlessoftheterminologyalloftheseinternationalagreementsunderinternationallawareequallytreatiesandtherulesarethesame.NotethatinUnitedStatesconstitutionallawthetermtreatyhasaspecialmeaningwhichismorerestrictedthanitsmeaningininternationallaw;seebelow.Treatiescanbelooselycomparedtocontractshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Contracts\oContracts:botharemeansofwillingpartiesassumingobligationsamongthemselvesanda_____toeitherthatfailstoliveuptotheirobligationscanbeheldliableunderinternationallawforthatbreach.The__ntralprincipleoftreatylawisexpressedinthe__ximhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Brocard\oBrocardpactasuntservandahttp://en._________.org/wiki/Pacta_sunt_servanda\oPactasuntservanda—pactsmustberespected.Asovereignstateisapoliticalassociationwitheffectivesovereigntyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sovereignty\oSovereigntyoverageographicareaandrepresentingapopulation.Astateusuallyincludesthesetofinstitutionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Institution\oInstitutionthatclaimtheauthorityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Authority\oAuthorityto__ketherulesthatgovernthepeopleofthesocietyinthatterritorythoughitsstatusasastateoftendependsinpartonbeingrecognizedbyanumberofotherstatesash__inginternalandexternalsovereigntyoverit.Self-defenseorself-defen__—seespellingdifferen__shttp://en._________.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differen__s\oAmericanandBritishEnglishspellingdifferen__sistheactofdefendingoneselfonespropertyorthewell-beingofanotherfromphysicalharm.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Self_defen__\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oWhiletheterm__ydefineanyformofpersonaldefenseitisstronglyassociatedwithcivilianhand-to-hand[dubioushttp://en._________.org/wiki/_________:Disputed_statement\o_________:Disputedstatement–discusshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Talk:Self-defense\lDubious\oTalk:Self-defense]defensetechniques.Self-defensedefinesacivilianactivityasopposedtoHand-to-handcombathttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hand-to-hand_combat\oHand-to-handcombatinamilitarycontext.TerritorialjurisdictioninUnitedStateslawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States_law\oUnitedStateslawreferstoacourtspowerovereventsandpersonswithintheboundsofaparticulargeographicterritory.Ifacourtdoesnoth__eterritorialjurisdictionovertheeventsorpersonswithinitthenthecourtcannotbindthedefendanttoanobligationoradjudicateanyrightsinvolvingthem.Territorialjurisdictionistobedistinguishedfromsu__ect-__tterjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Su__ect-__tter_jurisdiction\oSu__ect-__tterjurisdictionwhichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentcon__rninga__rtainsu__ect__tterorpersonaljurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Personal_jurisdiction\oPersonaljurisdictionwhichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentcon__rningparticularpersonswhereverthey__ybe.Unlikesu__ect-__tterjurisdictionterritorialjurisdiction__ybewaivedevenunintentionallybyadefendant.Personaljurisdictionterritorialjurisdictionsu__ect-__tterjurisdictionandpropernoti__http://en._________.org/wiki/Noti__\oNoti__tothedefendantareprerequisitesforavalidjudgment.PersonaljurisdictionUnitedStatesPersonaljurisdictioninUnitedStateslawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States_law\oUnitedStateslawreferstoacourtspoweroveraparticulardefendantinpersonamhttp://en._________.org/wiki/In_personam\oInpersonamjurisdictionoranitemofpropertyinremhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction_in_rem\oJurisdictioninremjurisdiction.Ifacourtdoesnoth__epersonaljurisdictionoveradefendantorpropertythenthecourtcannotbindthedefendanttoanobligationoradjudicateanyrightsovertheproperty.Personaljurisdictionistobedistinguishedfromsu__ect-__tterjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Su__ect-__tter_jurisdiction\oSu__ect-__tterjurisdictionwhichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentcon__rninga__rtainsu__ect__tterorterritorialjurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Territorial_jurisdiction\oTerritorialjurisdictionwhichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentcon__rningeventsthatoccurredwithinaterritory.Unlikesu__ect-__tterjurisdictionpersonaljurisdiction__ybewaivedevenunintentionallybyadefendant.Personaljurisdictionterritorialjurisdictionsu__ect-__tterjurisdictionandpropernoti__http://en._________.org/wiki/Noti__\oNoti__tothedefendantarethemostfundamentalconstitutionalprerequisitesforavalidjudgment.UniversaljurisdictionUniversaljurisdictionoruniversalityprincipleisaprincipleininternationallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_law\oInternationallawwherebystateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateclaimcriminaljurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdictionoverpersonswhoseallegedcrimeshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Crime\oCrimewerecommittedoutsidetheboundariesoftheprosecutingstateregardlessofnationalitycountryofresiden__http://en._________.org/wiki/Residency_domicile\oResidencydomicileoranyotherrelationwiththeprosecutingcountry.Thestatebacksitsclaimonthegroundsthatthecrimecommittedisconsideredacrimeagainstallwhichanystateisauthorizedtopunishasitistooserioustotoleratejurisdictionalarbitragehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdictional_arbitrage\oJurisdictionalarbitrage.Thecon__ptofuniversaljurisdictionisthereforecloselylinkedtotheideathat__rtaininternationalnormsareergaomneshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Erga_omnes\oErgaomnesorowedtotheentireworldcommunityaswellasthecon__ptofjuscogenshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jus_cogens\oJuscogens-that__rtaininternationallawobligationsarebindingonallstatesandcannotbemodifiedbytreaty.StateimmunityTherulesofstateimmunitycon__rntheprotectionwhichastatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateisgivenfrombeingsuedinthecourtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Court\oCourtofotherstates.Therulesrelatetolegalpro__edingsinthecourtsofanotherstatenotinastatesowncourts.Therulesdevelopedatatimewhenitwasthoughttobeaninfringementofastatessovereigntyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sovereignty\oSovereigntytobringpro__edingsagainstitoritsofficialsinaforeigncountry.Buttherearenowsubstantialex__ptionstotheruleofimmunity;inparticularastatecanbesuedwhenthedisputearisesfromacommercialtransactionenteredintobyastateorsomeothernon-sovereignactivityofastate.ThenewUnitedNationsConventiononJurisdictionalImmunitiesofStatesandtheirPropertywhichisnotyetinfor__formulatestherulesandtheex__ptionstothem.Itdoesnotcovercriminalpro__edingsanditdoesnotallowcivilactionsforhu__nrightsabuseshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hu__n_rights_abuse\oHu__nrightsabuseagainststateagentswheretheabusehasoccurredinanothercountry.Suc__ssionofstatesSuc__ssionofstatesisatheoryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Political_philosophy\oPoliticalphilosophyininternationalrelationshttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_relations\oInternationalrelationsregardingtherecognitionandac__ptan__ofanewlycreatedstatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStatebyotherstatesbasedonaper__ivedhistoricalrelationshipthenewstatehaswithapriorstate.Thetheoryhasitsrootin19th__nturydiplo__cyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Diplo__cy\oDiplo__cy.StatepropertyStatepropertyispropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property\oPropertyownedbythestatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oState.Suchproperty__yalsoreferredtocrownproperty.Inmoststatesthestateownszooshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Zoo\oZoolibrarieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Library\oLibraryschoolshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Schools\oSchoolsandparkshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Park\oPark;someisreservedforrestrictedusesuchasmilitaryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Military\oMilitarybasesandresearchlaboratorieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Laboratory\oLaboratory.Gover__entdebtalsoknownaspublicdebtornationaldebtismoneyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Money\oMoneyorcredithttp://en._________.org/wiki/Credit_finan__\oCreditfinan__owedbyanylevelofgover__ent;either__ntralgover__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/__ntral_gover__ent\o__ntralgover__entfederalgover__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Federal_gover__ent\oFederalgover__entmunicipalgover__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Municipal_gover__ent\oMunicipalgover__entorlocalgover__enthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Local_gover__ent\oLocalgover__ent.Nationalityisatherelationshipbetweenapersonhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Person\oPersonandtheirstatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateoforiginhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Origin\oOriginculturehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Culture\oCultureassociationaffiliationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Affiliation\oAffiliationand/orloyaltyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Loyalty\oLoyalty.Nationalityaffordsthestatejurisdictionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Jurisdiction\oJurisdictionoverthepersonandaffordsthepersontheprotectionofthestate.NationaltreatmentNationaltreatmentisaprincipleincusto__ryinternationallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Custo__ry_international_law\oCusto__ryinternationallawvitalto__nytreatyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Treaty\oTreatyregimes.Itessentiallymeanstreatingforeignershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Foreigner\oForeignerandlocalshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Local\oLocalequally.Undernationaltreatmentifastatehttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStategrantsaparticularrightbenefitorprivilegetoitsowncitizenshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Citizen\oCitizenitmustalsograntthoseadvantagestothecitizensofotherstateswhiletheyareinthatcountry.Inthecontextofinternationalagreementshttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_agreements\oInternationalagreementsastatemustprovideequaltreatmenttothosecitizensofotherstatesthatareparticipatingintheagreement.Importedandlocally-produ__dgoodsshouldbetreatedequally—atleastaftertheforeigngoodsh__eenteredthe__rket.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/National_treatment\lcite_note-wtofact-0#cite_note-wtofact-0\oDiplo__ticprotectionIninternationallawdiplo__ticprotectionordiplo__ticespousalisameansforaStatetotakediplo__ticandotheractionagainstanotherStateonbehalfofitsnationalwhoserightsandinterestsh__ebeeninjuredbytheotherState.Diplo__ticprotectionwhichhasbeenconfirmedindifferentcasesofthePer__nentCourtofInternationalJusti__http://en._________.org/wiki/Per__nent_Court_of_International_Justi__\oPer__nentCourtofInternationalJusti__andtheInternationalCourtofJusti__http://en._________.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justi__\oInternationalCourtofJusti__isadiscretionaryrightofaStateand__ytakeanyformthatisnotprohibitedbyinternationallaw.ItcanincludeconsularactionnegotiationswiththeotherStatepoliticalandeconomicpressurejudicialorarbitralpro__edingsorotherformsofpea__fuldisputesettlement.ExtraditionExtraditionistheofficialpro__ssbywhichonenationorstaterequestsandobtainsfromanothernationorstatethesurrenderofasuspectedorconvictedcriminal.Betweennationstatesextraditionisregulatedbytreaties.Amongsub-nationalregionsforexampletheindividualstatesoftheU.S.http://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStateswhereextraditionisrequiredbylawitismoreaccuratelyknownasrenditionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Rendition_law\oRenditionlaw.RightofasylumRightofasylumorpoliticalasylumisanancientjuridicalnotionunderwhichapersonpersecutedhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Persecution\oPersecutionforpoliticalopinionsorreligiousbeliefsinhisorherowncountry__ybeprotectedbyanothersovereignauthorityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sovereignty\oSovereigntyaforeigncountryorChurchhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Christian_Church\oChristianChurchsanctuarieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sanctuary\oSanctuaryasinme___valtimes.Politicalasylumshouldnotbemistakenwithmodernrefugeelawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Refugee_law\oRefugeelawwhichratherdealswith__ssiveinfluxofpopulationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Population\oPopulationwhiletherighthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Right\oRightofasylumcon__rnsindividualsandisusuallydeliveredinacase-to-casebasis.[CondominiumAcondominiumorcondoisaformofhousingtenurehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Housing_tenure\oHousingtenureandotherrealpropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Real_property\oRealpropertywhereaspecifiedpartofapie__ofrealestateusuallyofanapartmenthouseisindividuallyownedwhileuseofandac__sstocommonfacilitiesinthepie__suchashallwaysheatingsystemelevatorsexteriorareasisexecutedunderlegalrightsassociatedwiththeindividualownershipandcontrolledbytheassociationofownersthatjointlyrepresentownershipofthewholepie__.Colloquiallythetermisoftenusedtorefertotheunititselfinpla__ofthewordapartment.Acondominium__ybesimplydefinedasanapartmentthatthetenantownsasopposedtorents.InternalwatersAnationsinternalwaterscoversallwaterandwaterwaysonthelandwardsideofthebaselinehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Baseline_sea\oBaselineseafromwhichanationsterritorialwatershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Territorial_waters\oTerritorialwatersisdefined.[citationneededhttp://en._________.org/wiki/_________:Citation_needed\o_________:Citationneeded]Itincludeswaterwayssuchasriversandc____sandsometimesthewaterwithin__allbayshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Bay\oBay.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeahttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea\oUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeathecoastalnationisfreetosetlawsregulateanyuseanduseanyresour__.Foreignvesselsh__enorightofpassagewithininternalwatersandthislackofrighttoinno__ntpassagehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Inno__nt_passage\oInno__ntpassageisthekeydifferen__betweeninternalwatersandterritorialwaters.[InternationalRiversInternationalRiversisanon-profithttp://en._________.org/wiki/Non-profit\oNon-profitnon-gover__entalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Non-gover__ental\oNon-gover__entalenviro__entalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Enviro__entali__\oEnviro__entali__andhu__nrightshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Hu__n_rights\oHu__nrightsorganizationbasedinBerkeleyCaliforniahttp://en._________.org/wiki/Berkeley_California\oBerkeleyCalifornia.Foundedin1985byahostofsocialandenviro__entalactivistsInternationalRiversworkswithaglobalnetworkofpolicyandfinancial____ystsscientistsjournalistsdevelopmenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Sustainable_development\oSustainabledevelopmentspecialistslocalcitizensandvolunteerstoaddressdestructivedamshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dams\oDamsandtheirlegaciesinover60countries.TerritorialwatersTerritorialwatersoraterritorialseaasdefinedbythe1982UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeahttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea\oUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Territorial_sea\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oisabeltofcoastalwatersextendingatmosttwelvenauticalmileshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Nautical_mile\oNauticalmilefromthebaselinehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Baseline_sea\oBaselineseausuallythemeanlow-water__rkofacoastalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Coast\oCoaststate.Theterritorialseaisregardedasthesovereignterritoryofthestatealthoughforeignshipsbothmilitaryandcivilianareallowedinno__ntpassagehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Inno__nt_passage\oInno__ntpassagethroughit;thissovereigntyalsoextendstotheairspa__overandseabedbelow.PrescriptionlawPrescriptionlawisthemethodofsovereigntytransferofaterritorythroughinternationallaw____ogoustothecommonlawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Common_law\oCommonlawdoctrineofadversepossessionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Adverse_possession\oAdversepossessionforprivatereal-estate.Prescriptioninvolvestheopenencroachmentbythenewsovereignupontheterritoryinquestionforaprolongedperiodoftimeactingasthesovereignwithoutprotestorothercontestbytheoriginalsovereign.Thisdoctrinelegalizesdejurehttp://en._________.org/wiki/De_jure\oDejurethedefactohttp://en._________.org/wiki/De_facto\oDefactotransferofsovereigntycausedinpartbytheoriginalsovereignsextendednegligen__and/orneglectoftheareainquestion.Prescriptioncanalsobesaidtoh__eoccurredwheninthecontextofaterritorialdisputethesituationhasdevelopedtosuchadegreethattorestoresovereigntytotheoriginalrightfulsovereignwoulddisrupttheestablishedordertosuchadegreeastobeunfeasible;hen__thetransferofsovereigntydejuretothenewsovereign.__ssionMostbroadly__ssionto__deistheassig__entofpropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property\oPropertytoanotherentity.Ininternationallawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_law\oInternationallawitcommonlyreferstolandhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Land_borders\oLandborderstransferredbytreatyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Treaty\oTreaty.__ssionisasurrender;ayielding;agivingup.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/__ssion\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oItisvoluntaryasopposedtoannexationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Annexation\oAnnexationwhichisforcible.[Self-determinationSelf-determinationisdefinedasfreechoi__ofone’sownactswithoutexternalcompulsionandespeciallyasthe_______ofthepeopleofagiventerritoryhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Territory\oTerritorytodeterminetheirownpoliticalstatusorindependen__http://en._________.org/wiki/Independen__\oIndependen__fromtheircurrentstate.Inotherwordsitistherightofthepeopleofa__rtainnationtodecidehowtheywanttobegovernedwithouttheinfluen__ofanyothercountry.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Self-determination\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oThelatterisacomplexcon__ptwithconflictingdefinitionsandlegalcriteriafordeterminingwhichgroups__ylegiti__telyclaimtherighttoself-determination.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Self-determination\lcite_note-Unterberger-1#cite_note-Unterberger-1\o.Thisoftencoincideswithvariousnationalisthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Nationalist\oNationalistmovements.ReferendumAreferendumpluralreferendumsorreferendaballotquestionorplebiscitefromLatinhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Latin_language\oLatinlanguageplebiscitaoriginallyadecreeoftheConciliumPlebishttp://en._________.org/wiki/Concilium_Plebis\oConciliumPlebisisadirectvotehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Vote\oVoteinwhichanentireelectoratehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constituency\oConstituencyisaskedtoeitherac__ptorrejectaparticularproposal.This__yresultintheadoptionofanewconstitutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitution\oConstitutionaconstitutionalamendmenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Constitutional_amendment\oConstitutionalamendmentalawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawtherecallhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Recall_election\oRecallelectionofanelectedofficialorsimplyaspecificgover__entpolicy.Thereferendumorplebisciteisaformofdirectdemocracyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Direct_democracy\oDirectdemocracyideallyf__ouringthe__jority.Inno__ntpassageInno__ntpassageisacon__ptinadmiraltylawhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Admiralty_law\oAdmiraltylawwhichallowsforavesseltopassthroughtheterritorialwatershttp://en._________.org/wiki/Territorial_waters\oTerritorialwatersofanotherstatesu__ectto__rtainrestrictions.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefensehttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense\oUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefensedefinesinno__ntpassageas:Therightofallshipstoengageincontinuousandexpeditioussu_____passagethroughtheterritorialseaandarchipelagichttp://en._________.org/wiki/Archipelago\oArchipelagowatersofforeigncoastalstatesina__nnernotprejudicialtoitspea__goodorderorsecurity.Passageincludesstoppingandanchoringbutonlyifincidentaltoordinaryn__igationorne__ssarybyfor____jeurehttp://en._________.org/wiki/For_____jeure\oFor____jeureordistressorforthepurposeofrenderingassistan__topersonsshipsoraircraftindangerordistress.ContiguouszoneThecontiguouszoneisabandofwaterextendingfromtheouteredgeoftheterritorialseatoupto24 nauticalmiles44 kmfromthebaselinewithinwhichastatecanexertlimitedcontrolforthepurposeofpreventingorpunishinginfringementofitscustomsfiscalimmigrationorsanitarylawsandregulationswithinitsterritoryorterritorialsea.Thiswilltypicallybe12 nauticalmiles22 kmwidebutcouldbemoreifastatehaschosentoclaimaterritorialseaoflessthan12nauticalmilesorlessifitwouldotherwiseoverlapanotherstatescontiguouszone.Howeverunliketheterritorialseathereisnostandardruleforresolvingsuchconflictsandthestatesinquestionmustnegotiatetheirowncompromise.TheUnitedStateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/United_States\oUnitedStatesinvokedacontiguouszoneon24Septemberhttp://en._________.org/wiki/September_24\oSeptember241999http://en._________.org/wiki/1999\o1999.
[2]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contiguous_zone\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oAnexclusiveeconomiczonehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone\oExclusiveeconomiczoneextendsfor200nauticalmiles370kmbeyondthebaselinesoftheterritorialseathusitincludestheterritorialseaanditscontiguouszone.
[3]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contiguous_zone\lcite_note-2#cite_note-2\oAcoastalnationhascontrolofalleconomicresour__swithinitsexclusiveeconomiczoneincludingfishingminingoilexplorationandanypollutionofthoseresour__s.Howeveritcannotregulateorprohibitpassageorloiteringaboveonorunderthesu_____oftheseawhetherinno__ntorbelligerenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Belligerent\oBelligerentwithinthatportionofitsexclusiveeconomiczonebeyonditsterritorialsea.Before1982coastalnationsarbitrarilyextendedtheirterritorialwatersinanefforttocontrolactivitieswhicharenowregulatedbytheexclusiveeconomiczonesuchasoffshoreoilexplorationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Oil_exploration\oOilexplorationorfishingrightsseeCodWarhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Cod_War\oCodWar.Indeedtheexclusiveeconomiczoneisstillpopularlythougherroneouslycalledacoastalnationsterritorialwaters.ContinentalshelfThecontinentalshelfhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Continental_shelf\oContinentalshelfofacoastalnationextendsouttoitscontinental__rginhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Continental___rgin\oContinental__rginbutatleast200 nauticalmiles370 kmfromthebaselinesofitsterritorialsea.Thecontinental__rginisdefinedbyaseriesofpointsnotmorethan60nauticalmiles111kmapartwherethethicknessofsedimentaryrocksisatleastoneper__ntoftheheightofthecontinentalshelfabovethefootofthecontinentalslopebutnotmorethan60 nauticalmiles110 kminshorefromit.Thefootofthecontinentalslopeiswherethe__ximumchangeinthegra___ntoftheseabedoccurs.Thecontinental__rgincannotex__ed350nauticalmiles648kmbeyondthebaselinesoftheterritorialseaor100nauticalmiles185kmbeyondthe2500-metredepthunlessnaturalcomponentsofthecontinental__rginsuchasitsplateauxrisescapsbanksandspursbutnotsub__rineridgesarefartherout.Thecoastalnationhascontrolofallresour__sonorunderitscontinentalshelflivingornotbutnocontroloveranylivingorgani__sabovetheshelfthatarebeyonditsexclusiveeconomiczone.
[4]http://en._________.org/wiki/Contiguous_zone\lcite_note-3#cite_note-3\oIrelandhasbecomeoneofthefirstcountriestodefineitscontinentalshelfinaccordan__withtheUNconvention.[http://en._________.org/wiki/Contiguous_zone\lcite_note-4#cite_note-4\oProtocolsIninternationallawandinternationalrelationsaprotocolisgenerallyatreatyorinternationalagreementthatsupplementsaprevioustreatyorinternationalagreement.Aprotocolcanamendtheprevioustreatyoraddadditionalprovisions.Partiestotheearlieragreementarenotrequiredtoadopttheprotocol;sometimesthisis__declearerbycallingitanoptionalprotocolespeciallywhere__nypartiestothefirstagreementdonotsupporttheprotocol.DeclarationlawInlawadeclarationordinarilyreferstoajudgmenthttp://en._________.org/wiki/Judgment\oJudgmentofthecourtoranawardhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitration_award\oArbitrationawardofanarbitrationtribunalisabindingadjudicationoftherightsorotherlegalrelationsofthepartieswhichdoesnotprovideforororderenfor__ment.Wherethedeclarationis__debyacourtitisusuallyreferredtoasadeclaratoryjudgment.Lesscommonlywheredeclaratoryreliefisawardedbyanarbitratorhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitrator\oArbitratoritisnor__llycalledadeclaratoryaward.RetorsionRetorsionFrenchrétorsionfromLatinretortusinfluen__dbyLateLatin1585–95torsiatwistingwringing
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Retorsion\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oAphraseusedinInternationalLawisanactperpetratedbyonenationuponanotherinretaliationorreprisalforasimilaractperpetratedbytheothernation.Thetypicalmethodsofretorsionaretheuseofcomparablyseveremeasuresagainstcitizensoftheforeignnationfoundwithinthebordersoftheretaliatingnation.[http://en._________.org/wiki/Retorsion\lcite_note-1#cite_note-1\oReprisalInwa___reareprisalisalimitedanddeliberateviolationofthelawsofwarhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Laws_of_war\oLawsofwartopunishanenemywhohasalreadybrokenthem.Alegallyexecutedreprisalisnotanatrocityhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atrocity\owiktionary:atrocity.Tobelegallyjustifiedareprisalcanonlybedirectedagainstthe_____carryingouttheoriginalviolationcanonlybecarriedoutasalastresortafterh__inggivenfor__lnoti__oftheplannedreprisalmustbeproportionatetotheoriginalviolationmusth__etheaimofpersuadingtheoriginalviolatortocomplywiththelegallyac__ptedbeh__iorinfutureandmustnotcontinueaftertheillegalbeh__iorends.Mediationaformofalternativedisputeresolutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution\oAlternativedisputeresolutionADRorappropriatedisputeresolutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dispute_resolution\oDisputeresolutionaimstoassisttwoormoredisputantsinreachinganagreementhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Agreement\oAgreement.Thepartieshttp://en._________.org/wiki/______law\o_____lawthemselvesdeterminetheconditionsofanysettlementsreached—ratherthanac__ptingsomethingimposedbyathird_____.Thedisputes__yinvolveaspartiesstateshttp://en._________.org/wiki/State\oStateorganizationscommunitiesindividualshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Individual\oIndividualorotherrepresentativeswithavestedinterestintheoutcome.Mediatorsuseappropriatetechniquesand/orskillstoopenand/orimprovedialoguehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dialogue\oDialoguebetweendisputantsaimingtohelpthepartiesreachanagreementwithconcreteeffectsonthedisputed__tter.Nor__llyallpartiesmustviewthemediatorasimpartialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Impartial\oImpartial.Disputants__yusemediationinavarietyofdisputessuchascommerciallegaldiplo__ticworkpla__communityandfamily__tters.Athird-_____representative__ycontractandmediatebetweensayunionsandcorporations.Whenaworkers’uniongoesonstrikeadisputetakespla__andthecorporationhiresathird_____tointerveneinattempttosettleacontractoragreementbetweentheunionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Trade_union\oTradeunionandthecorporationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Corporation\oCorporation.Conciliationisanalternativedisputeresolutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution\oAlternativedisputeresolutionADRpro__sswherebythepartiestoadisputeincludingfutureinterestdisputesagreetoutilizetheservi__sofaconciliatorwhothenmeetswiththepartiesseparatelyinanattempttoresolvetheirdifferen__s.Conciliationdiffersfromarbitrationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitration\oArbitrationinthattheconciliationpro__ssinandofitselfhasnolegalstandingandtheconciliatorusuallyhasnoauthoritytoseekeviden__orcallwitnessesusuallywritesnodecisionand__kesnoaward.Conciliationdiffersfrommediationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Mediation\oMediationinthatthe__ingoalistoconciliatemostofthetimebyseekingcon__ssions.Inmediationthemediatortriestoguidethediscussioninawaythatoptimizespartiesneedstakesfeelingsintoaccountandreframesrepresentations.Inconciliationthepartiesseldomifeveractuallyfa__eachotheracrossthetableinthepresen__oftheconciliator.Arbitrationaformofalternativedisputeresolutionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution\oAlternativedisputeresolutionADRisalegalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawtechniquefortheresolutionofdisputeshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Dispute\oDisputeoutsidethecourtshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Court\oCourtwhereinthepartiestoadisputereferittooneormorepersonsthearbitratorsarbitersorarbitraltribunalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitral_tribunal\oArbitraltribunalbywhosedecisiontheawardhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitral_award\oArbitralawardtheyagreetobebound.Itisasettlementtechniqueinwhichathird_____reviewsthecaseandimposesadecisionthatislegallybindingforbothsides.
[1]http://en._________.org/wiki/Arbitration\lcite_note-0#cite_note-0\oOtherformsofADRincludemediationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Mediation\oMediationaformofsettlementnegotiationfacilitatedbyaneutralthird_____andnon-bindingresolutionbyexperts.Itismorehelpfulhoweversimplytoclassifyarbitrationasaformofbindingdisputeresolutionequivalenttolitigationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Litigation\oLitigationinthecourtsandentirelydistinctfromtheotherformsofdisputeresolutionsuchasnegotiationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Negotiation\oNegotiationmediationhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Mediation\oMediationordeterminationsbyexpertswhichareusuallynon-binding.Arbitrationismostcommonlyusedfortheresolutionofcommercialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Commercial_law\oCommerciallawdisputesparticularlyinthecontextofinternationalcommercialtransactionshttp://en._________.org/wiki/International_commer__\oInternationalcommer__.Theuseofarbitrationisfarmorecontroversialinconsumerandemployment__tterswherearbitrationisnotvoluntarybutisinsteadimposedonconsumersoremployeesthroughfine-printcontractsdenyingindividualsoftheirrighttoac__ssthecourts.Arbitrationcanbeeithervoluntaryor__ndatoryandcanbeeitherbindingornon-bindinghttp://en._________.org/wiki/Non-binding_arbitration\oNon-bindingarbitration.Non-bindingarbitrationisonthesu_____similartomediation.Howevertheprincipaldistinctionisthatwhereasamediatorwilltrytohelpthepartiesfindamiddlegroundonwhichtocompromisethearbitratorre__instotallyremovedfromthesettlementpro__ssandwillonlygiveadeterminationofliabilityandifappropriateanindicationofthequantumofda__gespayable.LegalguardianAlegalguardianisapersonwhohasthelegalauthorityandthecorrespondingdutytocareforthepersonalandpropertyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Property\oPropertyinterestsofanotherpersoncalledawardhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Ward_legal\oWardlegal.Usuallyapersonhasthestatusofguardianbecausethewardisincapableofcaringforhisorherowninterestsduetoinfancyhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Infancy\oInfancyincapacityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Incapacity\oIncapacityordisabilityhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Disability\oDisability.Mostcountriesandstatesh__elawsthatprovidethattheparentshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Parent\oParentofaminorhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Minor_law\oMinorlawchildarethelegalguardiansofthatchildandthattheparentscandesignatewhoshallbecomethechildslegalguardianintheeventofdeath.ObligationAnobligationisarequirementtotakesomecourseofactionwhetherlegalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawormoralhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Morality\oMorality.Therearealsoobligationsinothernor__tivecontextssuchasobligationsofetiquettehttp://en._________.org/wiki/Etiquette\oEtiquettesocialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Social\oSocialobligationsandpossiblyintermsofpoliticshttp://en._________.org/wiki/Politics\oPoliticswhereobligationsarerequirementswhichmustbefulfilled.Thesearegenerallylegalhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Law\oLawobligationswhichcanincurapenaltyforunfulfilmentalthough__rtainpeopleareobligedtocarryout__rtainactionsforotherreasonsaswellwhetherasatraditionhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Tradition\oTraditionorforsocialhttp://en._________.org/wiki/Social\oSocialreasons.Obligationsvaryfrompersontoperson:forexampleapersonholdingapoliticaloffi__willgenerallyh__efarmoreobligationsthanan__erage_____citizenwhothemselveswillh__emoreobligationsthanachild.Obligationsaregenerallygrantedinreturnforanincreaseinanindividual’srightsorpower.PAGE12。