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DESIGNINGPRICINGSTRATEGIES__策略DESIGNINGPRICINGSTRATEGIESAllfor-profitorganizationsand__nynonprofitorganizationssetpri__sontheirgoodsorservi__s.Whetherthepri__iscalledrentforanapartmenttuitionforeducationfarefortr__elorinterestforborrowedmoneythecon__ptisthesame.Throughoutmostofhistorypri__sweresetbynegotiationbetweenbuyersandsellers.Settingonepri__forallbuyersarosewiththedevelopmentoflarge-scaleretailingattheendofthenineteenth__nturywhenWoolworth’sandotherstoresfolloweda“strictlyone-pri__policy”becausetheycarriedso__nyitemsandhadso__nyemployees.Now100yearslatertechnologyistakingusbacktoaneraofnegotiatedpricing.TheInternetcorporatenetworksandwirelesssetupsarelinkingpeople__chinesandcompaniesaroundtheglobeconnectingsellersandbuyersasneverbefore.WebsiteslikeCompare.NetandPri__Scan.comallowbuyerstocompareproductsandpri__squicklyandeasily.On-lineauctionsiteslikeeBay.comandOnsale.com__keiteasyforbuyersandsellerstonegotiatepri__sonthousandsofitems.Atthesametimenewtech-nologiesareallowingsellerstocollectdetaileddataaboutcustomers’buyinghabitspreferen__s—evenspendinglimits—sotheycantailortheirproductsandpri__s.1Intheentire__rketingmixpri__istheoneelementthatprodu__srevenue;theothersprodu__costs.Pri__isalsooneofthemostflexibleelements:Itcanbechangedquicklyunlikeproductfeaturesandchannelcommitments.Althoughpri__competi-tionisa__jorproblemfacingcompanies__nydonothandlepricingwell.Themostcommonmistakesarethese:Pricingistoocost-oriented;pri__isnotrevisedoftenenoughtocapitalizeon__rketchanges;pri__issetindependentoftherestofthe__rketingmixratherthanasanintrinsicelementof__rket-positioningstrategy;andpri__isnotvariedenoughfordifferentproductitems__rketsegmentsandpurchaseoccasions.215DesigningPricingStrategiesandProgramsWewilladdressthefollowingquestions:■Howshouldacompanypri__anewgoodorservi__■Howshouldthepri__beadaptedtomeetvaryingcircumstan__sandopportunities■Whenshouldthecompanyinitiateapri__changeandhowshoulditrespondtocompetitivepri__changes224CHAPTER12DESIGNINGPRICINGSTRATEGIESANDPROGRAMSValuePricingValuepricingisamethodinwhichthecompanychargesafairlylowpri__forahigh-qualityoffering.Valuepricingsaysthatthepri__shouldrepresentahigh-valueoffertoconsumers.Thisisa__jortrendinthecomputerindustrywhichhasshiftedfromchargingtopdollarforcutting-edgecomputerstoofferingbasiccomputersatlowerpri__s.Forinstan__MonorailComputerstartedsellingPCsin1996foraslittleas$999towoopri__-sensitivebuyers.Compaqandothersquicklyfollowedsuit.Morere__ntlye__chinesbegansellingitsPCsforlessthan$500withoutamonitortargetingthe55per__ntofcomputerlesshouseholdswithannualincomesof$25000to$
30000.13Valuepricingisnota__tterofsimplysettinglowerpri__sonone’sproductscomparedtothoseofcompe_____s.Itisa__tterofreengineeringthecompany’soper-ationstobecomealow-costprodu__rwithoutsacrificingqualityandloweringpri__ssignificantlytoattractalargenumberofvalue-consciouscustomers.AnimportanttypeofvaluepricingiseverydaylowpricingEDLPwhichtakespla__attheretaillevel.RetailerssuchasWal-__rtandA__zon.comuseEDLPpricingpostingaconstanteverydaylowpri__withfewornotemporarypri__discounts.Theseconstantpri__seliminateweek-to-weekpri__un__rtaintyandcanbecontrastedtothe“high-low”pric-ingofpromotion-orientedcompe_____s.Inhigh-lowpricingtheretailerchargeshigherpri__sonaneverydaybasisbutthenrunsfrequentpromotionsinwhichpri__saretemporarilyloweredbelowtheEDLPlevel.14RetailersadoptEDLPforanumberofreasonsthemostimportantofwhichisthatconstantsalesandpromotionsarecostlyanderodeconsumerconfiden__inthecredibilityofeverydaypri__s.Consumersalsoh__elesstimeandpatien__forsuchtime-honoredtraditionsaswatchingforspecialsandclippingcoupons.Yetpromo-tionsareanex__llentwaytocreateexcitementanddrawshoppers.ForthisreasonEDLPisnotaguaranteeofsuc__ss.Assuper__rketsfa__heightenedcompetitionfromstorerivalsandalternativechannels__nyaredrawingshoppersusingacombi-nationofhigh-lowandEDLPstrategieswithincreasedadvertisingandpromotions.15Going-RatePricingIngoing-ratepricingthefirmbasesitspri__largelyoncompe_____s’pri__s.Thefirmmightchargethesamemoreorlessthanits__jorcompe_____scharges.Inoligop-olisticindustriesthatsellacommoditysuchassteelpaperorfertilizerfirmsnor__llychargethesamepri__.The__allerfirms“followtheleader”changingtheirpri__swhenthe__rketleader’spri__schangeratherthanwhentheirownde__ndorcostschange.Somefirms__ychargeaslightpremiumorslightdiscountbuttheytypicallypreservetheamountofdifferen__.Whencostsaredifficulttomeasureorcompetitiveresponseisun__rtainfirmsfeelthatthegoingpri__representsagoodsolutionsin__itseemstoreflecttheindustry’scollectivewisdomastothepri__thatwillyieldafairreturnandnotjeopardizeindustrialharmony.Sealed-BidPricingCompetitive-orientedpricingiscommonwhenfirmssubmitsealedbidsforjobs.Inbiddingeachfirmbasesitspri__onexpectationsofhowcompe_____swillpri__ratherthanonarigidrelationshiptothefirm’sowncostsorde__nd.Sealed-bidpricinginvolvestwooppositepulls.Thefirmwantstowinthecontract—whichmeanssubmit-tingthelowestpri__—yetitcannotsetitspri__belowcost.Tosolvethisdilem__thecompanywouldesti__tetheprofitandtheprobabil-ityofwinningwitheachpri__bid.Bymultiplyingtheprofitbytheprobabilityofwin-ningthebidonthebasisofthatpri__thecompanycancalculatetheexpectedprofitforeachbid.Forafirmthat__kes__nybidsthismethodisawayofplayingtheoddsSettingthePri__225toachieve__ximumprofitsinthelongrun.Howeverfirmsthatbidonlyoccasionallyorthatbadlywanttowin__rtaincontractswillnotfinditadvantageoustousetheexpected-profitcriterion.Step6:SelectingtheFinalPri__Thepreviouspricingmethodsnarrowtherangefromwhichthecompanyselectsitsfinalpri__.Inselectingthatpri__thecompanymustconsideradditionalfactors:psy-chologicalpricingtheinfluen__ofother__rketing-mixelementsonpri__companypricingpoliciesandtheimpactofpri__onotherparties.PsychologicalPricing__nyconsumersusepri__asanindicatorofquality.I__gepricingisespeciallyeffec-tivewithego-sensitiveproductssuchasperfumesandexpensivecars.A$100bottleofperfumemightcontain$10worthofs__ntbutgiftgiverspay$100tocommunicatetheirhighregardforthere__iver.Similarlypri__andqualityper__ptionsofcarsinter-act:16Higher-pri__dcarsareper__ivedtopossesshighquality;higher-qualitycarsarelikewiseper__ivedtobehigherpri__dthantheyactuallyare.Ingeneralwheninfor-__tionabouttruequalityisun__ailablepri__actsasasignalofquality.Whenlookingataparticularproductbuyerscarryintheirmindsareferen__pri__formedbynoticingcurrentpri__spastpri__sorthebuyingcontext.Sellersoften__nipulatethesereferen__pri__s.Forexampleasellercansituateitsproductamongexpensiveproductstoimplythatitbelongsinthesameclass.Referen__-pri__thinkingisalsocreatedbystatingahigh__nufacturer’ssuggestedpri__byindicatingthattheproductwaspri__dmuchhigheroriginallyorbypointingtoarival’shighpri__.17Oftensellerssetpri__sthatendinanoddnumberbelievingthatcustomerswhoseeatelevisionpri__dat$299insteadof$300willper__ivethepri__asbeinginthe$200rangeratherthanthe$300range.Anotherexplanationisthatoddendingscon-veythenotionofadiscountorbargainwhichiswhybothtoysrus.comandetoys.comsetpri__sendingin
99.Butifacompanywantsahigh-pri__i__geinsteadofalow-pri__i__geitshould__oidtheodd-endingtactic.TheInfluen__ofOther__rketing-MixElementsThefinalpri__musttakeintoaccountthebrand’squalityandadvertisingrelativetocompetition.WhenFarrisandReibsteinexaminedtherelationshipsamongrelativepri__relativequalityandrelativeadvertisingfor227consumerbusinessestheyfoundthatbrandswith__eragerelativequalitybuthighrelativeadvertisingbudgetswereabletochargepremiumpri__s.Consumersapparentlywerewillingtopayhigherpri__sforknownproductsthanforunknownproducts.Theyalsofoundthatbrandswithhighrelativequalityandhighrelativeadvertisingobtainedthehighestpri__swhilebrandswithlowqualityandadvertisingchargedthelowestpri__s.Finallythepositiverelationshipbetweenhighpri__sandhighadvertisingheldmoststronglyinthelaterstagesoftheproductlifecyclefor__rketleaders.18__art__rketersthere-foreensurethattheirpri__sfitwithother__rketing-mixelements.定价战略以营利为目的的__和非营利__的都对他们的商品或服务制定__无论__是被叫做叫出租(__),学费(为教育),车费(旅行),或利息(借来的钱),其概念是一样的在人类___大部分时间内,__由买家和卖家之间的谈判设定一个__,对所有买家出现了与大型零售业的发展,在__世纪结束时,伍尔沃斯和其他商店后“严格的__政策”,因为他们进行这么多项目,有这么多的员工,100年后的今天,技术是带我们回到谈判定价的时代是连接人,机器和网络,企业网络和无线设置世界各地的企业,连接买家和卖家是前所未有的Web站点,,像Compare.Net和Pri__Scan.com让__者比较产品和__迅速和容易在线拍卖__eBay.com和Onsale.com等很容易让买家和卖家商谈__在数千个项目同时,新技术的nologies让卖家详细的数据收集有关客户的__习惯,喜好,甚至开支限额,使他们能够调整自己的产品和__1在整个营销组合中,__是一个因素,产生收入;其他生产成本__是最灵活的要素之一它是可以改变的很快,与产品功能和渠道的承诺虽然__竞争tion是,许多公司不处理定价以及主要面对的问题最常见的错误是__是成本为导向的,__也不是经常修改足够的把握市场的变化;__是__的,其余的营销组合的市场定位策略,而不是作为一种内在元素;__不变化为不同的产品项目,细分市场,并__足够场合215设计定价战略和程序我们将讨论以下问题■公司的__应该怎样一个新的商品或服务?■__应如何调整,以适应不同的情况和机遇?■当公司开始__的变动,以及应当如何响应有竞争力的__变动?224第12章设计的定价策略和计划价值定价价值定价方法,该公司收取相当低的__为高质量的产品价值定价的__应该代表一种高价值的要约消费者的青睐这是一个在计算机行业的大趋势,已经从充电的尖端计算机提供基本的计算机在较低的顶部美元__例如,单轨电脑于1996年开始销售个人电脑为999美元来吸引对__敏感的买家康柏和其他国家也迅速跟进最近,,e__chines公司开始销售其低于500美元的电脑不带显示器,针对55家庭年收入25000元至30000元的computerless%13价值定价是不是简单地设置__较低的产品相比那些竞争对手的这是一个问题的再造公司的操作ations成为一个低成本的生产商不牺牲质量的前提下,降低__显着,吸引了大量的价值的客户一个重要的类型价值定价是天天低价(EDLP),其中发生在零售层面零售商如沃尔玛和亚马逊(A__zon.com)使用EDLP定价,发布一个常数,天天低价,很少或没有临时__折扣这些不变__计算消除为期一周的周__的不确定性和可对比的“高-低”的定价ING__面向的竞争对手高-低的__,零售商收费高在日常的基础,但__运行频繁的促销__暂时降低低于EDLP级别14零售商采用EDLP有许多原因,其中最重要的是不断的销售和促销活动的成本很高,而且削弱消费者的信心,信誉的日常__消费者也很少有时间和耐心等历史悠久的传统特色菜和裁剪__券看然而,促销活动,蒸发散是一个很好的方法来创造兴奋和绘制购物出于这个原因,,EDLP是不是成功的保证由于__面临的竞争加剧从商店的竞争对手和其他渠道,许多人都使用组合图购物国家和高-低EDLP策略,__和促销活动的增加15行市__在持续的利率定价,该公司根据其__主要竞争对手的__该公司可能会收取相同的,更多的,或低于其主要竞争对手(S)费用在oligopolistic行业销售的商品如钢铁,造纸,肥料,企业通常收取相同的__小企业“跟随领袖”,改变他们的__当市场__者的__变化,而不是根据自己的需求或成本更改有些公司可能会收取的轻微溢价或轻微折让,但它们通常保留的量的差异当成本难以衡量或竞争反应是不确定的,公司觉得__是一个很好的解决方案,因为这似乎反映了行业的__智慧得到一个公平的__,将返回,而不是破坏劳资和谐密封的投标__竞争导向定价法是常见的,当企业提交密封投标工作在投标,每个企业根据其竞争对手将如何定价,而__的预期比一个的刚性关系到企业自身的成本或需求密封投标定价涉及两个相反的拉该公司希望赢得的合同,这意味着提交-婷最低的__,但它不能设置其低于成本的__为了解决这一难题,该公司将估计的利润和概率每个投标__赢得性双赢的概率乘以利润该__的基础上,宁出价,该公司可以计算出预期利润每次出价对于一个企业,使许多投标,此方法是一种打oddsSetting__225从长远来看,实现利润最大化然而,企业出价只是偶尔或很想赢得一定的合同将无法找到它有利的使用预期利润的标准第六步选择最终__狭窄的范围内,该公司选择其以前的定价方法最终__在选择的__,公司必须考虑额外的因素PSY-心理毛病定价,在__上,公司的其他营销组合要素的影响定价政策,与其他各方对__的影响心理定价许多消费者使用__作为质量的一个指标____尤其是短跑运动员,郑颖人与自我,敏感产品,如香水和昂贵的汽车100元一瓶的香水可能包含价值10元的气味,但送礼者支付100美元的沟通___的高度重视同样,__和质量的汽车间的看法行动16个高价位的汽车被认为具有较高的质量,更高质量的汽车同样被认为是比实际的高价位在一般情况下,当信息__tion约了真实的品质是不可用的,__作为质量的__当您在一个特定的产品,__者携带在他们头脑中的参考价注意到目前的__,过去的__,或__上下文形成卖家往往操纵这些参考__例如,卖家可以位于其产品中昂贵的产品,意味着它属于同一类参考__的思考也说一个大制造商的建议零售价,创建时指出,该要高得多最初,或指向对手的高__,产品的__17通常卖家设置的__结尾的奇数,以为客户谁看到电视售价为299美元,而不是300元的__会觉察到在至200美元而不是300美元左右另一种解释是,奇怪的结局的维伊的折扣价或议价的概念,这是,___都toysrus.com和etoys.com设置__,结束于99但是,如果一个公司要高,而不是低__形象__形象,故应避免奇数结束的战术其他营销组合要素的影响最终的__必须考虑到品牌的质量和__相对于竞争当里斯和鲁宾斯坦研究之间的关系相对227消费业务的__,相对质量,相对__,他们发现的平均相对质量,品牌,但相对较高的__预算能收取溢价消费者显然愿意支付更高的已知产品的__比未知的产品他们还发现,品牌相对较高的质量和相对高的__获得了最高的__,而低质量的品牌和__的最低__收取最后,该持有最强烈的正相关关系高__和高__市场的__者在产品生命周期的后期阶段18聪明的商家有因此确保其__适合与其他营销组合元素。