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岩土力学作业一说明本次作业对应于文字教材1至3章，应按相应教学进度完成
一、填空题（每空1分，共计25分）1．工程上常用的土的密度有湿密度、饱和密度、浮密度和干密度2．土是由固相、气相、和液相三部分组成3．土体的应力按引起的原因分为自重应力和附加应力两种4．对于天然土，OCR1时的土是超固结土，OCR=1的土属于正常固结土，而OCR1的土是欠固结土
5.土的颗粒分析试验最常用的室内试验方法有筛析法和比重计法
6.土体的变形可分为由正应力引起的体积变形和由剪应力引起的形状变形
7.按照土颗粒的大小、粒组颗粒含量把地基土分成碎石土、砂土、粉土、粘性土和人工填土
8.根据渗透破坏的机理，渗透破坏的形式主要有流土、管涌、接触流失和接触冲刷
9.控制坝基及地基的渗流，其主要任务可归结为三点一是尽量减少渗漏量；二是提早释放渗透压力，保证地基与水工建筑物有足够的静力稳定性；三是防止渗透破坏，保证渗透稳定性
二、问答题（每小题5分，共计35分）1．什么是孔隙比e、孔隙率n，二者的关系孔隙比为土中孔隙的体积与土粒的体积之比；孔隙率为土中孔隙的体积与土的体积之比；关系为n=e/1+e，或e=n/1-n2．固结度指在某一固结应力作用下，经某一时间t后，土体发生固结或孔隙水应力消散的程度
3.在压力作用下，饱和土体固结的力学本质是什么？在某一压力作用下，饱和土体的固结过程就是土体中的超孔隙水应力不断消散、附加有效应力不断增加的过程，即超孔隙水应力逐渐转化为附加有效应力的过程
4.土的级配曲线的特征可用哪两个系数来表示？这两个系数是怎样定义的？答不均匀系数和曲率系数，，，为粒径分布曲线上小于某粒径的土粒含量分别为10%，30%，60%时所对应的粒径
5.请写出无侧向变形条件下的压缩量计算公式，并指出各个量的含义或或S为压缩量，H为试样的高度，av为压缩系数，e为孔隙比，Es压缩模量
6.简述渗透变形的产生条件根据渗透破坏的机理，可将产生渗透变形的条件分为两种类型，其一是动水压力和土体结构，它们是产生渗透变形的必要条件；另一类则是地质条件和工程因素，称之为充分条件只有当土具备充分必要条件时，才发生渗透破坏
7.简述有效应力的原理有效应力原理的研究内容就是研究饱和土中这两种应力的不同性质和它们与全部应力的关系有效应力原理归纳起来可由下面两个要点表达饱和土体内任一平面上受到的总应力可分为有效应力和孔隙水压力两部分；土的变形与强度的变化仅决定于有效应力的变化
六、计算题（共4题，计40分）
1.一均质无粘性边坡，为20，°，坡角25°，试问干坡或完全浸水时，其安全系数是多少？有顺坡渗流发生时，坡角为多少度边坡将达到极限平衡状态？解在干坡或浸水时，安全系数为=
0.577/
0.466=
1.24有顺坡渗流发生边坡达到极限平衡状态时Fs=1，则=（20-
9.8）×
0.577/20=
0.21坡角为
2.土粒比重为2072，饱和度为37%，孔隙比是
0.95，当饱和度提高到90%时，每立方米应加多少水？解Vv=eVs=V–Vs，每立方米的土粒体积为Vs=V/1+e=1/1+
0.95=
0.513m3Vv=eVs=
0.95×
0.513=
0.487m3当Sr=37%时，Vw1=SrVv=
0.37×
0.487=
0.18m3当Sr=90%时，Vw2=SrVv=
0.90×
0.487=
0.438m3则Vw=
0.438–
4.18=
0.258m3应加水Ww==10×
0.258=
2.58kN
3.有一8m厚的饱和粘土层，上下两面均可排水，现从粘土层中心处取得2cm厚的试样做固结试验（试样上下均有透水石）试样在某级压力下达到60％的固结度需要8分钟，则该粘土层在同样的固结压力作用下达到60％的固结度需要多少时间？若该粘土层单面排水，所需时间为多少？答由于原位土层和试样土的固结度相等，且值相等，因而又土的性质相同，（如改单面，其达到60%固结度时间为由，则
4.根据图（a）中给出地基中多层土中各土层的厚度、容重，绘制地基中的自重应力随深度的分布曲线图［解］由图（a）给出的资料，可计算出各土层分界面上的应力上述自重应力随深度的变化关系结果b岩土力学作业二说明本次作业对应于文字教材4至6章，应按相应教学进度完成
一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共计10分）1．粘性土的抗剪强度由两部分组成，一部分是颗粒间的粘结力，另一部分是aa.摩擦力b.水压力c.有效应力d.荷载2．直接剪切试验测定土的天然强度为（c）a.b.c.d.3．地基土发生剪切破坏而失去整体稳定时的基底最小压力为（b）a、允许承载力b、极限承载力c、承载力特征值4．在渗流作用下，土体中的细颗粒在粗颗粒形成的孔隙中流失的现象称为（b）a.流土b.管涌c.接触流失d.接触冲刷5．条形基础竖直均布荷载下附加应力计算时，附加应力系数的确定应根据（d）比值查表确定a.L/B和z/Bb.L/B和x/Bc.L/B和z/Ld.x/B和z/B
二、填空题（每空1分，共计20分）1．为了考虑固结程度和排水条件对抗剪强度的影响，根据加荷速率的快慢将直剪试验划分为快剪、固结快剪和慢剪三种类型
2.根据固结排水条件的不同，相应于直剪试验，三轴试验也可分为不固结不排水剪UU、固结不排水剪CU和固结排水剪CD三种类型3．某土单元体抗剪强度指标c＝20Kpa，，大主应力σ1＝400Kpa，则该单元体小主应力σ3＝182Kpa时，该土处于极限平衡状态，若σ3＝200Kpa，该土处于稳定状态4．饱和砂土在低围压下受剪时，对于松砂来说，其固结不排水剪试验测得的强度要比固结排水剪试验测得的强度高（高或低），对于紧砂来说，其固结不排水剪试验测得的强度要比固结排水剪试验测得的强度低（高或低）
5.根据摩尔-库伦破坏准则，理想状态下剪破面与大主应力面的夹角为6．太沙基公式中，Nγ、Nq、NC称为承载力系数，由内摩擦角确定
7.地基剪切破坏的三种形式为整体破坏、局部剪切和冲切
8.影响地基承载力的因素有土的容重、地下水位、基础的宽度和基础埋深
四、简答题（每小题5分，共计40分）
1.什么叫土的抗剪强度常用的试验方法有哪些土的抗剪强度是指土体对于外荷载所产生的剪应力的极限抵抗能力抗剪强度试验的方法有室内试验和野外试验等，室内最常用的是直剪试验、三轴压缩试验和无侧限抗压强度试验等野外试验有原位十字板剪切试验等
2.试述莫尔---库伦破坏准则，什么是极限平衡条件？当莫尔应力圆在强度线以内时，说明单元土体中任一平面的剪应力都小于该面上相应的抗剪强度，故土体单元处于稳定状态，没有剪破；当莫尔应力圆与强度线相切时，说明单元土体中有一平面的剪应力达到了它的抗剪强度；把莫尔应力圆与库伦抗剪强度相切时的应力状态，作为土的破坏准则根据莫尔-库伦破坏准则来研究某一土体单元处于极限平衡状态时的应力条件及其大、小主应力之间的关系称为极限平衡条件
3.什么是主动土压力，什么是被动土压力？如果挡土结构在土压力的作用下，其本身不发生变形和任何位移（移动或转动），土体处于弹性平衡状态，则这时作用在挡土结构上的土压力称为静止土压力挡土结构在土压力作用下向离开土体的方向位移，随着这种位移的增大，作用在挡土结构上的土压力将从静止土压力逐渐减小当土体达到主动极限平衡状态时，作用在挡土结构上的土压力称为主动土压力挡土结构在荷载作用下向土体方向位移，使土体达到被动极限平衡状态时的土压力称为被动土压力
4.发生滑坡时，土体内的滑动面上的剪应力达到抗剪强度的原因是什么？一是由于剪应力的增加二是因为土体本身的抗剪强度减小
5.确定地基承载力的方法有那些？答1按土的强度理论确定地基承载力（普朗特极限承载力公式、太沙基极限承载力公式、魏锡克极限承载力公式）2规范查表方法（根据野外坚定结果或土的物理性质指标查表确定）3静载荷试验及其它原位测试方法（标准贯入试验、静力触探试验，轻便触探试
6.土的抗剪强度指标为什么影响土的抗剪强度因素有哪些土的抗剪强度指标为c，土的抗剪强度影响影响因素有1土粒的矿物成分、形状、颗粒大小与颗粒级配2土的密度3含水量4土体结构的扰动情况5孔隙水压力的影响
五、计算题（每题10分，共计40分）
1.已知地基中一点的大小主应力为，，土的强度指标，°，试判断该点是否会剪破？剪破面与大主应力之间的夹角为多少？解由摩尔-库伦准则=150×
1.76+2×20×
1.33=
317.2kPa由于σ1fσ1=300kPa或σ3=
140.2Kpa所以不会剪破某挡土墙高8m，墙背竖直光滑，填土面水平，填土为无粘性土，γ=18kN/m3，φ=30°，填土表面作用有连续均布荷载，q=20kPa试用朗肯土压力理论计算主动土压力以及作用点位置解
（1）土压力系数
（2）主动土压力墙顶pa=qka=20×1/3=
6.7kPa墙底pa=qka+rHka=
6.7+18×8×1/3=
54.7kPa总土压力Pa=（
6.7+
54.7）/2×8=
245.6kN/m作用点距墙底的距离在均布条形荷载作用下，土体中A点的大主应力σ1=400kPa中，小主应力σ3=150kPa，土的抗剪强度指标c=0，φ=30°试求1A点处土是否处于极限平衡状态最危险的剪应力面与最大主应面夹角为多少度？解1）133kPa＜150kPa处于稳定状态2）最危险的剪应力面与最大主应面夹角60°（10分）4．有一条形基础，宽度B为6m，埋深D为
1.5m，其上作用着中心荷载P为1700kN/m，地基土质均匀，容重为19kN/m3，土的强度指标为c=20kPa，=20o，安全系数为
2.5，假定基底完全粗糙，应用太沙基理论，验算地基的稳定性=20o时，，，（10分）解
（1）基底压力为p=P/B=1700/6=
283.3kPa2由太沙基理论，地基的极限承载力为=19×6×
3.5/1+19×
1.5×
6.5+20×15=
684.8kPa3容许承载力为=
684.8/
2.5=
273.9kPa由于p[f]，地基不稳定岩土力学作业三说明本次作业对应于文字教材7至9章，应按相应教学进度完成
一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共计10分）1．岩石内结晶晶格错位的结果，引起岩石的（b）a、晚性破坏b、塑性破坏c、弱面剪切破坏2．岩石的单轴抗压强度一般与单轴抗拉强度间成下列哪种关系ba.Rc=1-4Rtb.Rc=4-10Rtc.Rt=1-4Rcd.Rt=1-4Rc3．下面岩体的那种应力状态是稳定状态aa.sinαb.sinαc.=sinα
4.广义虎克定律中岩石的剪切模量G为（a）a.，b.，c.，d.
5.岩石的变形（弹性）模量可表示为（c）a.，b.，c.，d.
二、填空题（每空1分，共计20分）1．岩石的破坏形式脆性破坏、延性破坏、弱面剪切破坏2．岩石的力学强度是工程设计中最重要的力学指标，分别是单轴抗压强度，抗拉强度、抗剪强度3．岩石的抗压强度就是岩石试件在单轴压力（无围压）作用下，抗压破坏的极限能力4．岩石的抗剪强度就是指岩石抵抗剪切破坏（滑力）的能力，用凝聚力C和内摩擦角Φ来表示5．岩石的变形是指岩石在任何物理因素作用下形状和体积大小的变化岩石的变形特性常用弹性模量E和泊松比μ两个指标来表示；
6.岩石的蠕变是指岩石在应力不变的情况下岩石变形ε随着时间t而增加的现象，一般而言，典型的岩石蠕变曲线可分为三个阶段初期蠕变，二次蠕变（稳态蠕变），（加建蠕变）第三期蠕变
7.天然应力或初始应力是习惯上常将工程施工前就存在于岩体中的地应力，称为初始应力
8.岩滑根据滑动面的形式，组合可分为平面滑动，楔形滑动和旋转滑动
三、判断题（每小题2分，共计10分）1．岩石的脆性破坏是由于岩石中裂隙的发生和发展的结果所致（√）2．岩石的变形是指岩石在外力作用下形状和大小的变化（×）3．最大正应变理论是用来判断脆性岩石破坏的理论（√）4．根据莫尔－库伦准则可证明均质岩石的破坏面法线与大应力方向间夹角为（×）5．在普通压力板上做岩石的变形试验，即可得到岩石的全应力-应变曲线（×）
四、问答题（每小题5分，共计20分）1．何为塑性破坏，其破坏机理是个什么？答案塑性破坏延性破坏是岩石在破坏之前变形量很大，且没有明显的破坏荷载原因可能是岩石内结晶晶格错位的结果2．影响单轴抗压强度的因素有哪些？影响单轴抗压强度的因素有一方面是岩石材料本身的，一方面是试验方法上的因素岩石材料本身的主要因素有
①矿物组成；
②结晶程度和颗粒大小；
③胶结情况；
④生成条件；
⑤风化作用；
⑥密度；
⑦水的作用等试验方面的因素有
①试件尺寸和大小；
②加荷速度等
3.直剪破坏试验全过程曲线可分几段？各区段的特点是什么？岩石直剪破坏试验全过程曲线如图所示该曲线共分三段第一段原点—τp区段，该段近似为一直线即变形为弹性，τp为极限强度即裂隙开始发展的强度；第二段τp－τf区段，τf为峰值强度，该段内裂隙发展至破坏；第三段τf—τo区段τo为剪断面上的摩擦力剩余强度
4.什么叫滑坡？滑坡滑动面的形式有几种当岩坡受力过大或岩石强度过低，一部分岩体向下或向外滑动叫滑坡，滑波滑动面有三种软弱结构面；结构面；在岩体中；
六、计算题（每题10分，共计40分）1．将一个岩石试件进行单轴试验，当压应力达到120MPa时即发生破坏，破坏面与大主应力平面的夹角即破坏所在面与水平面的仰角为60°，假定抗剪强度随正应力呈线性变化即遵循莫尔库伦破坏准则，试计算1内摩擦角2破坏面上的正应力和剪应力解α=θ，理论上的抗拉强度2．某岩样c=15kPa，φ=30°，如该土受到最小主应力σ3=200kPa，最大主应力σ1=400kPa，试判断该土样处于何种状态？解稳定极限平衡不稳定3．试求证解代入即求．4．岩石试件的单轴抗压强度为160MPa，泊松比岩石试件在三轴试验中破坏，破坏时的最小主应力为130MPa，中间主应力为260MPa，根据最大正应变理论的破坏准则，推算这时的最大主应力解岩土力学作业四说明本次作业对应于文字教材10至12章，应按相应教学进度完成
一、填空题（每空分，共计30分）1．把由于洞室围岩的变形和破坏作用而作用在支护或衬砌上的压力称为山岩压力2．山岩压力的影响因素除岩石性质外，还应考虑洞室的形状和大小，地质构选，支护的形式和刚度、洞室深度、时间、施工方法等因素
3.地下工程岩体稳定性影响因素主要有岩土性质、岩体结构与地质构造、地下水、地应力及地形等3．岩基的极限承载力，就是指岩基所能负担的最大荷载或称极限荷载4．脆性围岩的变形破坏类型有张裂坍落、劈裂、剪切滑动或破坏、岩爆、和弯折内鼓5．大坝失稳的形式主要有表层滑动破坏、深层滑动破坏、混合滑动破坏
6.由于岩体变形而对支护或衬砌的压力，称为变形压力；将由于岩体破坏而而对支护或衬砌的压力，称为松动压力
7.在中等质量的岩石中，洞室围岩的变形较大由于洞室围岩的应力重分布需要一定的时间，所以在进行支护或衬砌以后围岩的变形受支护或衬砌的约束，于是产生山岩压力
8.在整体性良好，裂隙节理不发育的坚硬岩石中开挖洞室，开挖结束后，围岩的弹性变形就完成若在此后进行支护，支护没有山岩压力这种支护主要是用来防止岩石的风化以及剥落碎块的掉落
9.无裂隙围岩的应力计算方法有内应力分配法和抗力系数法
三、判断题（每小题2分，共计10分）1．求解山岩压力的计算理论中，太沙基理论把岩体假定为散粒体（√）2．由于洞室围岩的变形和破坏而作用于支护或衬砌上的压力称为围岩压力（×）3．围岩处于塑性变形状态时，洞室埋置愈深，山岩压力愈大（√）4．开挖洞室的影响范围是6倍洞直径（×）
5.洞室的形状相同时，围岩压力与洞室的尺寸无关（√）
四、问答题（每小题5分，共计20分）
1.简述地下洞室开挖引起的围岩应力重分布及其规律教材283页2．何为山岩压力？按其成因可分为哪几类？各自用什么方法确定？把由于洞室围岩的变形和破坏而作用在支护或衬砌上的压力称为山岩压力由于围岩变形而作用在支护或初砌上的岩压力称为变形压力称为变形压力由于围岩破坏而作用在支护或初砌上的岩压力称为变形压力称为松沙压力计算变形压力的方法弹塑理论推导出的芬纳公式或修正芬纳公式计算松动压力的方法压力拱理论，太沙基理论和弹塑性理论推出卡柯公式3．不同质量状况的围岩变形破坏特别如何？整体性良好，裂隙不发育的坚硬岩石中，围岩应力小于围岩强度无破碎变形以开挖过程中的弹性变形为主，开挖结束变形也结束如果支护，支护上一般无山岩压力，支护起防止岩石风化或剥落碎块的掉落中等质岩的岩体，洞室变形大，还可能有少量破碎，支护上以变形压力为主，松动压力为辅在破碎和软弱岩石中，岩体强度低，被切割的很碎，围岩应力超过岩体强度很多，因此，岩块在不大的应力作用就会破坏坍落，在这类岩石中，坍落和松动是产生山岩压力的主要原因
4.简述高压固结灌浆的施工方法教材344－347
五、计算题（每题10分，共计40分）1．埋深200m处的岩体内开挖一硐径为2a=2m圆形断面隧道，如果岩体中初始地应力为静水压力式，并且上覆岩层的平均容重为g/cm3，若隧道周岩的抗剪强度指标MPa，，试用莫尔-库仑强度条件评价其硐壁的稳定性解洞壁σ1=2σzσ3=0稳定极限平衡不稳定2．在地下50m深度处开挖一地下洞室，其断面尺寸为5m×5m岩石性质指标为凝聚力c=200kPa，内摩擦角，容重=25kN/m3，侧压力系数已知侧壁岩石不稳，试用太沙基公式计算洞顶垂直山岩压力及侧墙的总的侧向山岩压力解这时，3．某圆形洞室围kN/m3，埋置深度H=160m，洞的半径r0=7m设折减扣的凝聚力c=
0.02MPa，，求松动压力系数k1曲线系数k2曲线解MPa，则由查图6-16和图6-17的曲线得所以MPa
4.有压隧洞的最大内水压力=
2.8MPa，隧洞内半径为
2.3m，用厚度为
0.4m的混凝土衬砌已知混凝土的弹性模量=
1.8×104MPa，泊松比岩石的弹性模量=
1.1×104MPa，泊松比=
0.367试求1离中心
2.5m处的衬砌内的应力；2离中心
3.5m处的围岩附加应力解a=
2.3m，b=
2.7m，p=
2.8MPa将已知的、、、以及a和b值代入式7-25，得所以混凝土衬砌传给岩石的压力为MPa求离中心
3.5m（ｍ）处的围岩附加应力MPaMPa要求衬砌内任何点的应力、则可根据厚壁圆筒的公式计算ｒ＝
2.5ｍ压应力拉应力在衬砌的周界上，当时，有当时，有请您删除一下内容，O∩_∩O谢谢！！！2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全，电大期末考试必备小抄，电大考试必过小抄BasketballcanmakeatrueclaimtobeingtheonlymajorsportthatisanAmericaninvention.FromhighschooltotheprofessionallevelbasketballattractsalargefollowingforlivegamesaswellastelevisioncoverageofeventsliketheNationalCollegiateAthleticAssociationNCAAannualtournamentandtheNationalBasketballAssociationNBAandWomensNationalBasketballAssociationWNBAplayoffs.AndithasalsomadeAmericanheroesoutofitsplayerandcoachlegendslikeMichaelJordanLarryBirdEarvinMagicJohnsonSherylSwoopesandothergreatplayers.Attheheartofthegameistheplayingspaceandtheequipment.Thespaceisarectangularindoorcourt.Theprincipalpiecesofequipmentarethetwoelevatedbasketsoneateachendinthelongdirectionofthecourtandthebasketballitself.Theballissphericalinshapeandisinflated.Basket-ballsrangeinsizefrom
28.5-30in72-76cmincircumferenceandinweightfrom18-22oz510-624g.Forplayersbelowthehighschoollevelasmallerballisusedbuttheballinmensgamesmeasures
29.5-30in75-76cmincircumferenceandawomensballis
28.5-29in72-74cmincircumference.Thecoveringoftheballisleatherrubbercompositionorsyntheticalthoughleathercoversonlyaredictatedbyrulesforcollegeplayunlesstheteamsagreeotherwise.Orangeistheregulationcolor.Atalllevelsofplaythehometeamprovidestheball.Inflationoftheballisbasedontheheightoftheballsbounce.Insidethecoveringorcasingarubberbladderholdsair.Theballmustbeinflatedtoapressuresufficienttomakeitreboundtoaheightmeasuredtothetopoftheballof49-54in
1.2-
1.4mwhenitisdroppedonasolidwoodenfloorfromastartingheightof6ft
1.80mmeasuredfromthebottomoftheball.Thefactorymusttesttheballsandtheairpressurethatmakestheballlegalinkeepingwiththebouncetestisstampedontheball.Duringtheintensityofhighschoolandcollegetourneysandtheprofessionalplayoffsthisinflatedspherecommandsconsiderableattention.Basketballisoneoffewsportswithaknowndateofbirth.OnDecember11891inSpringfieldMassachusettsJamesNaismithhungtwohalf-bushelpeachbasketsattheoppositeendsofagymnasiumandout-lined13rulesbasedonfiveprinciplestohisstudentsattheInternationalTrainingSchooloftheYoungMensChristianAssociationYMCAwhichlaterbecameSpringfieldCollege.Naismith1861-1939wasaphysicaleducationteacherwhowasseekingateamsportwithlimitedphysicalcontactbutalotofrunningjumpingshootingandthehand-eyecoordinationrequiredinhandlingaball.Thepeachbasketshehungasgoalsgavethesportthenameofbasketball.HisstudentswereexcitedaboutthegameandChristmasvacationgavethemthechancetotelltheirfriendsandpeopleattheirlocalYMCAsaboutthegame.TheassociationleaderswrotetoNaismithaskingforcopiesoftherulesandtheywerepublishedintheTriangletheschoolnewspaperonJanuary
151892.Naismithsfivebasicprinciplescenterontheballwhichwasdescribedaslargelightandhandledwiththehands.Playerscouldnotmovetheballbyrunningaloneandnoneoftheplayerswasrestrictedagainsthandlingtheball.Theplayingareawasalsoopentoallplayersbuttherewastobenophysicalcontactbetweenplayers;theballwastheobjective.Toscoretheballhadtobeshotthroughahorizontalelevatedgoal.Theteamwiththemostpointsattheendofanallottedtimeperiodwins.EarlyinthehistoryofbasketballthelocalYMCAsprovidedthegymnasiumsandmembershipintheorganizationgrewrapidly.Thesizeofthelocalgymdictatedthenumberofplayers;smallergymsusedfiveplayersonasideandthelargergymsallowedseventonine.Theteamsizebecamegenerallyestablishedasfivein1895andin1897thiswasmadeformalintherules.TheYMCAlostinterestinsupportingthegamebecause10-20basketballplayersmonopolizedagymnasiumpreviouslyusedbymanymoreinavarietyofactivities.YMCAmembershipdroppedandbasketballenthusiastsplayedinlocalhalls.Thisledtothebuildingofbasketballgymnasiumsatschoolsandcollegesandalsototheformationofprofessionalleagues.AlthoughbasketballwasbornintheUnitedStatesfiveofNaismithsoriginalplayerswereCanadiansandthegamespreadtoCanadaimmediately.ItwasplayedinFranceby1893;Englandin1894;AustraliaChinaandIndiabetween1895and1900;andJapanin
1900.From1891through1893asoccerballwasusedtoplaybasketball.Thefirstbasketballwasmanufacturedin
1894.Itwas32in81cmincircumferenceorabout4in10cmlargerthanasoccerball.Thededicatedbasketballwasmadeoflacedleatherandweighedlessthan20oz567g.Thefirstmoldedballthateliminatedtheneedforlaceswasintroducedin1948;itsconstructionandsizeof30in76cmwereruledofficialin
1949.Therule-setterscamefromseveralgroupsearlyinthe1900s.Collegesanduniversitiesestablishedtheirrulescommitteesin1905theYMCAandtheAmateurAthleticUnionAAUcreatedasetofrulesjointlystatemilitiagroupsabidedbyasharedsetofrulesandthereweretwoprofessionalsetsofrules.AJointRulesCommitteeforcollegestheAAUandtheYMCAwascreatedin1915andunderthenametheNationalBasketballCommitteeNBCmaderulesforamateurplayuntil
1979.InthatyeartheNationalFederationofStateHighSchoolAssociationsbegangoverningthesportatthehighschoollevelandtheNCAARulesCommitteeassumedrule-makingresponsibilitiesforjuniorcollegescollegesandtheArmedForceswithasimilarcommitteeholdingjurisdictionoverwomensbasketball.UntilWorldWarIIbasketballbecameincreasinglypopularintheUnitedStatesespeciallyatthehighschoolandcollegelevels.AfterWorldWarIIitspopularitygrewaroundtheworld.Inthe1980sinterestinthegametrulyexplodedbecauseoftelevisionexposure.BroadcastoftheNCAAChampionshipGamesbeganin1963andbythe1980scabletelevisionwascarryingregularseasoncollegegamesandevenhighschoolchampionshipsinsomestates.PlayerslikeBillRussellWiltChamberlainandLewAlcindorKareemAbdul-Jabbarbecamenationallyfamousatthecollegelevelandcarriedtheirfansalongintheirprofessionalbasketballcareers.Thewomensgamechangedradicallyin1971whenseparaterulesforwomenweremodifiedtomorecloselyresemblethemensgame.TelevisioninterestfollowedthewomenaswellwithbroadcastofNCAAchampionshiptourneysbeginningintheearly1980sandtheformationoftheWNBAin
1997.InternationallyItalyhasprobablybecometheleadingbasketballnationoutsideoftheUnitedStateswithnationalcorporateandprofessionalteams.TheOlympicsboostsbasketballinternationallyandhasalsospurredthewomensgamebyrecognizingitasanOlympiceventin
1976.AgaintelevisioncoverageoftheOlympicshasbeenexceptionallyimportantindrawingattentiontointernationalteams.ThefirstprofessionalmensbasketballleagueintheUnitedStateswastheNationalBasketballLeagueNBLwhichdebutedin
1898.Playerswerepaidonaper-gamebasisandthisleagueandotherswerehurtbythepoorqualityofgamesandtheever-changingplayersonateam.AftertheGreatDepressionanewNBLwasorganizedin1937andtheBasketballAssociationofAmericawasorganizedin
1946.Thetwoleaguescametoagreethatplayershadtobeassignedtoteamsonacontractbasisandthathighstandardshadtogovernthegame;underthesepremisesthetwojoinedtoformtheNationalBasketballAssociationNBAin
1949.ArivalAmericanBasketballAssociationABAwasinauguratedin1967andchallengedtheNBAforcollegetalentandmarketshareforalmosttenyears.In1976thisleaguedisbandedbutfourofitsteamsremainedasNBAteams.Unificationcamejustintimeformajortelevisionsupport.SeveralwomensprofessionalleagueswereattemptedandfailedincludingtheWomensProfessionalBasketballLeagueWBLandtheWomensWorldBasketballAssociationbeforetheWNBAdebutedin1997withthesupportoftheNBA.JamesNaismithoriginallyfromAl-monteOntarioinventedbasketballattheInternationalYMCATrainingSchoolinSpringfieldMassachusettsin
1891.Thegamewasfirstplayedwithpeachbasketshencethenameandasoccerballandwasintendedtoprovideindoorexerciseforfootballplayers.Asaresultitwasoriginallyaroughsport.AlthoughtenofNaismithsoriginalthirteenrulesremainthegamesoonchangedconsiderablyandthefounderhadlittletodowithitsevolution.ThefirstintercollegiategamewasplayedinMinnesotain1895withnineplayerstoasideandafinalscoreofninetothree.Ayearlaterthefirstfive-manteamsplayedattheUniversityofChicago.Basketswerenowconstructedoftwinenetsbutitwasnotuntil1906thatthebottomofthenetswereopen.In1897thedribblewasfirstusedfieldgoalsbecametwopointsfoulshotsonepointandthefirstprofessionalgamewasplayed.AyearlaterthefirstprofessionalleaguewasstartedintheEastwhilein1900thefirstintercollegiateleaguebegan.In1910inordertolimitroughplayitwasagreedthatfourfoulswoulddisqualifyplayersandglassbackboardswereusedforthefirsttime.NonethelessmanyrulesstilldiffereddependinguponwherethegameswereplayedandwhetherprofessionalscollegiansorYMCAplayerswereinvolved.CollegebasketballwasplayedfromTexastoWisconsinandthroughouttheEastthroughthe1920sbutmostteamsplayedonlyintheirownregionswhichpreventedanationalgameoraudiencefromdeveloping.ProfessionalbasketballwasplayedalmostexclusivelyintheEastbeforethe1920sexceptwhenateamwouldbarnstormintotheMidwesttoplaylocalteamsoftenafteraleaguehadfolded.Beforethe1930sveryfewgameseitherprofessionaloramateurwereplayedinfacilitiessuitableforbasketballorwithaperfectlyroundball.Somewereplayedinarenaswithchickenwireseparatingtheplayersfromfansthusthewordcagersotherswithpostsinthemiddleofthefloorandoftenwithbalconiesoverhangingthecornerslimitingtheareasfromwhichshotscouldbetaken.Untilthelate1930sallplayersusedthetwo-handsetshotandscoresremainedlow.Basketballinthe1920sand1930sbecamebothmoreorganizedandmorepopularalthoughitstilllaggedfarbehindbothbaseballandcollegefootball.Intheprosfiveurbanethnicteamsexcelledandplayedwithalmostnocollegegraduates.TheyweretheNewYorkOriginalCeltics;theClevelandRosenblumsownedbyMaxRosenblum;EddieGottliebsPhiladelphiaSPHAsSouthPhiladelphiaHebrewAssociation;andtwogreatblackteamstheNewYorkRenaissanceFiveandAbeSapersteinsHarlemGlobetrotterswhichwasactuallyfromChicago.WhiletheseteamshadsomenotableplayersnosuperstarssuchasBabeRuthJackDempseyorRedGrangeemergedtocapturethepublicsattentionastheydidinothersportsoftheperiod.Thesamewastrueincollegebasketballupuntilthelate1930swithcoachesdominatingthegameanditsdevelopment.WalterDocMeanwellatWisconsinForrestPhogAllenatKansasWardPiggyLambertatPurdueandHenryDocCarlsonatPittsburghallmadesignificantcontributionstothegamesdevelopment:zonedefensestheweavethepassinggameandthefastbreak.InthedecadeprecedingWorldWarIIfiveeventschangedcollegebasketballandallowedittobecomeamajorspectatorsport.In1929therulescommitteereversedadecisionthatwouldhaveoutlaweddribblingandslowedthegameconsiderably.FiveyearslaterpromoterEdwardNedIrishstagedthefirstintersectionaltwinbillinMadisonSquareGardeninNewYorkCityandattractedmorethan16000fans.HedemonstratedtheappealofmajorcollegeballandmadeNewYorkitscenter.InDecember1936HankLuisettiofStanfordrevealedthevirtuesoftheone-handedshottoanamazedGardenaudienceandbecamethefirstmajorcollegiatestar.SoonthereafterLuisettiscoredanincrediblefiftypointsagainstDuquesnethusendingtheEastsdevotiontothesetshotandencouragingamoreopengame.Inconsecutiveyearsthecenterjumpwaseliminatedafterfreethrowsandthenafterfieldgoalsthusspeedingupthegameandallowingformorescoring.In1938IrishcreatedtheNationalInvitationTournamentNITintheGardentodetermineanationalchampion.AlthoughpostseasontournamentshadoccurredbeforetheNITwasthefirstwithmajorcollegesfromdifferentregionsandprovedtobeagreatfinancialsuccess.TheNationalCollegiateAthleticAssociationNCAAcreateditsownpostseasontournamentin1939butdidnotrivaltheNITinprestigeforsometime.The1940ssawsignificantchangesforcollegebasketball.PlayersbeganusingthejumpshotafterKennySailorsofWyomingwowedtheEastwithitin
1943.Thebehind-the-backdribbleandpassalsoappearedasdidexceptionalbigmen.BobKurlandatOklahomaAMwasalmostsevenfeettallandGeorgeMikanatDePaulwassixfeetteninches.WhileKurlandhadperhapsthebettercollegecareerandplayedintwoOlympicshechosenottoplayprofessionalballwhereasMikanbecamethefirstdominantstarinthepros.Theirdefensiveplayinspiredtheruleagainstgoaltendingblockingashotonitsdownwardflight.AdolphRuppwhoplayedunderPhogAllenalsocoachedthefirstofhismanytalentedteamsatKentuckyinthatdecade.Howeverin1951Ruppandsixothercoachessufferedthroughapoint-shavingscandalthatinvolvedthirty-twoplayersatsevencollegesandseriouslyinjuredcollegebasketballparticularlyinNewYorkwherefourofthesevenschoolswerelocated.WhilethegamesurvivedtheNCAAmoveditstournamentawayfromMadisonSquareGardentodifferentcitieseachyearandtheNITsprestigebegantodecline.Professionalbasketballremainedadisorganizedandstodgysportupuntilthelate1940swithbarnstormingstillcentraltothegameandmostplayersstillusingthesetshot.In1946howeverhockeyownersledbyMauricePodoloffcreatedtheBasketballAssociationofAmericaBAAintheEasttofilltheirarenasbutfewfanscameevenafterJoeFulksofPhiladelphiaintroducedthejumpshot.TheBAAsrivaltheNationalBasketballLeaguehadexistedsincethe1930shadbetterplayerslikeMikanoftheMinneapolisLakersBobDaviesoftheRochesterRoyalsandDolphShayesoftheSyracuseNationalsbutoperatedinmuchworsefacilitiesanddidnotdomuchbetteratattractingaudiences.In1948PodoloffluredtheLakersRoyalsandtwootherteamstotheBAAandproposedamergerofthetwoleaguesforthe1949–1950season.TheresultwastheNationalBasketballAssociationNBAwithPodoloffitsfirstcommissioner.Theseventeen-teamleaguestruggledatfirstbutsoonreduceditssizeandgainedstabilityinlargepartbecauseofMikansappealandPodoloffsskills.Despitethepoint-shavingscandalcollegeballthrivedinthe1950slargelybecauseithadprolificscorersandmoregreatplayersthaninanypreviousdecade.FrankSelvyofFurmanandPaulArizinofVillanovabothaveragedoverfortypointsearlyinthedecadewhileClarenceBevoFrancisoftinyRioGrandeCollegeinOhioamazedfansbyscoring116pointsinonegamewhileaveraging50pergameforaseason.Thedecadealsowitnessedsomeofthemosttalentedandcompleteplayersever.TomGolaatLaSalleBillRussellatSanFranciscoWiltChamberlainatKansasElginBayloratSeattleJerryWestatWestVirginiaandOscarRobertsonatCincinnatiallhadphenomenalskillsthathavesincebeenthemeasureofotherplayers.Andin1960oneofthebestteamseverOhioStatewontheNCAAtitleledbyJerryLucasandJohnHavlicek.Professionalbasketballunderwentmajorchangesinthe1950sthathelpedincreaseitspopularity.In1950EarlLloydfromWestVirginiaplayedfortheWashingtonCapitolsandbecamethefirstAfricanAmericantoplayintheNBA.In1954DannyBiasoneowneroftheSyracuseNationalspersuadedtheNBAtoinstitutethetwenty-four-secondshotclockrequiringateamtoshootwithinthattime.ThiseliminatedtheslowpacethathadlongprevailedintheprosandmadetheNBAmoreexciting.Teamsnowscoredonehundredpointsagameregularly.Theleaguealsonowawardedfoulshotswhentheotherteamreceivedmorethanfivepersonalfoulsaperiodgreatlyreducingtheroughplaythathadhurttheprogame.In1956RedAuerbachoftheBostonCelticsmadethebestdealinNBAhistorywhenheacquiredthedraftrightstoBillRussellthedefensiveplayerandrebounderheneededtocomplementBobCousyandBillSharmaninthebackcourt.WiththeadditionofRusselltheCelticsbecamethebestproteameverwinningelevenofthenextthirteenchampionshiptitlesbeforeexpansiondilutedthetalentintheNBA.TheSt.LouisHawkswithBobPettitbeattheCelticsin1958andthePhiladelphia76erswithChamberlainbeatthemin
1967.ButRussellaplayer-coachfortwotitlesandhisteammatesformedthegreatestdynastyinproball.EventheLosAngelesLakerswhohadmovedfromMinneapolisin1960withWestandBaylorwerenomatchfortheCelticsovertheseyears.WhileWestBaylorChamberlain—whoaveragedoverfiftypointsagamein1962—andOscarRobertson—whointhesameyearaveragedatripledoublepergameinpointsassistsandrebounds—weresuperiortoanyindividualCelticnootherteamcouldconsistentlyplaydefensere-boundandrunwiththeCeltics.。
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