还剩60页未读,继续阅读
本资源只提供10页预览,全部文档请下载后查看!喜欢就下载吧,查找使用更方便
文本内容:
《英语语言学实用教程》教学提示Unit1SomePreliminariesaboutLanguage[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.1Thereisuniversalagreementabouttheoriginoflanguage.F2Petdogscanspeakhumanlanguages.F3Allhumaninfantscanspeaksomelanguage.FNote:Allnormalhumaninfantscanlearntospeaksomelanguage.4Bycreativitywemeanthecreativeuseoflanguageasoftenpracticedbypoets.FNote:Bycreativitywemeanthatwecanalwayscreateandunderstandnewsentencesneverusedbefore.5Withdifferentculturestherewillbedifferentlanguages.FNote:Someculturescansharethesamelanguage.6Notallusesoflanguagearemeanttoconveynewinformation.TNote:Example:languageusedforphaticcommunionisnotmeanttoconveynewinformation.■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1Whatdoes“language”meanineachofthecontextsa.anaturallanguage;languageinparticular.b.ahuman-specifictoolforcommunication;languageingeneral.c.individualstyleoflanguageuse.d.ametaphoricalwayofreferringtobees’systemofcommunication.2IsthereanyothercontextinwhichtheuseofthewordmeanssomethingelseYes.Example:languageforthecomputerlikeC+
2.ASK:1WhatiftherewerenolanguageOmit.2WhatiftherewereonlyonelanguagetheworldoverOmit.3WhatcanwelearnfromthisBiblestoryLanguageispowerfulasatoolofhumancommunication.
3.ASK:1Doyouthinkthetwostatementsareequallyprobableandifnotwhynotaismorelikelythanbbecausethewordasthebasicunitofmeaningthatcanoccurindependentlyinlanguageisfiniteinnumberwhereasthesentenceascomposedofwordsthoughalmostinfiniteinnumberismadepossiblebyourknowledgeofvocabularyandgrammar.Wecanalwaysproduceandunderstandsentencesthatwenevercomeacrossbefore.Inthatsensenosentenceisreallynew.2InwhatcontextdowemakethesecondstatementWhenwefocusourattentiononthemeaningofasentenceorwhenweareconcernedwiththeformofasentenceasfoundinalanguageclass.
4.ASK:1ArethereonomatopoeicwordsinChineseYes.e.g.“哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.2DoestheexistenceofonomatopoeicwordsoverthrowtheclaimthatlanguageisarbitraryNo.Onomatopoeicwordsaccountforaverylimitedpercentageinthevocabularyofalanguage.
5.ASK:1Canonereallyinventalanguageofone’sownNo.2IfnotwhyAlanguagecomesintobeingandusebyconventionoragreementamongitsspeakers.
6.ASK:1IsthereanybasicflawinthisexperimentTheprocessisnotstrictlycontrolled.Theremayhavebeensomecoincidence.Thesamplesizeistoosmallfortheexperimenttobevalid.2DoyouthinkwereallycananswerthequestionaboutthebeginningoflanguageNoatleastinthepresentconditionwhere/whenwecannotperformexperimentsonthehumanbrainthekeyorganofspeech.
7.ASK:1CanyouidentifythemostlikelyorderfromleasttomostadvancedofthesesamplesC→B→A2Whatfeaturesineachchild’sutterancescanyouuseasevidencetosupportyourorderingChildA:goodsyntaxexceptforimproperquestionform.ChildB:visibledevelopmentofsyntax;overgeneralizationChildC:Notmuchsyntax;two-wordutterances;telegraphicsentencessentencesthatcontainonlycontentwordsbutlackfunctionwords
8.ASK:1Itisoftenassumedthatchildrenimitateadultsinthecourseoflanguageacquisition.CanimitationaccountfortheaboveproductiononthepartofthechildNotwholly.Thereiscounterevidenceagainsttheassumptionliketheovergeneralization“go-ed”for“went”.2Whatdistinguishesthechild’sproductionfromthatoftheadultOvergeneralizationof“-ed”forthepasttenseasshownby“holded”.
9.ASK:1Howdoadultsreinforcetheprocessofchildren’sacquisitionasexemplifiedhereTheyuseexplicitcorrection.2DochildrenknowwhattheyaredoingwronglyNotexactly.3DotheadultssucceedintheirreinforcementNotalwaysatleast.4Howshouldwetreatthe“mistakes”thatchildrenmakewhileacquiringtheirmothertongueWemayignorethemsometimesalthoughsomeamountofreinforcementmayturnouttobehelpful.
10.ASK:1DochildrenlearnthroughstructuredorsimplifiedinputassuggestedNotalways.Thereisevidenceforbothsides.2CanyouoffersomeexamplesillustratingrepresentingthewayadultstalktoinfantsOmit.Note:Mothereseischaracterizedbyshortersentenceshigherpitchexaggeratedintonationhigherproportionofcontentwordstofunctionwordssimplesyntaxmoreinterrogativesandimperativesmorerepetitions.Yetitisnotsyntacticallysimpler.Ratheritmayincludesyntacticallycomplexsentencessuchasquestions:DoyouwantyourjuicenowEmbeddedsentences:Mommythinksyoushouldsleepnow.Imperatives:Patthedoggently!Negativeswithtagquestions:Wedon’twanttohurthimdoweIndeeditisfortunatethatmothereseisnotsyntacticallyrestricted.Ifitwerechildrenmightnothavesufficientinformationtoextracttherulesoftheirlanguage.
11.ASK1WhatmeasuresdoyousuggestforprotectingdialectsaswellaslanguagesOmit.2DoyouthinkthatsomedaypeopleallovertheworldwillspeakonlyonelanguageorsomedaynodialectwillexistOmit.
12.ASK:ArethereanyuniversalsthatyouthinkalllanguagessharebutarenotmentionedhereE.g.Alllanguageshaveinternalstructures.Alllanguageshavenumericals.■ExercisesTask3:StudyQuestions
1.WhatdoyouthinkisessentialtotheemergenceoflanguageTheexistenceofsocialactivities;theneedtoexpressdiverseideasemotionsetc.;theneedtocommunicateideastodistantplaces;etc.
2.CanourpetslearnhumanlanguagesWhyorwhynotNo.Theyaregeneticallynotendowedwiththecapacity.
3.WhatroledoesbodylanguageplayinlanguagecommunicationOmit.
4.Naturallyoccurring“experiments”withso-called“wolf-children”“bear-children”“Mowgli”or“monkey-children”andothersuchferalyoungstershavebeenwidelyreportedforhundredsofyears.Noneofthesechildrencouldspeakorunderstandspeechandindeedmosteffortstoteachthemlanguageendedinfailure.HowwouldyouaccountforthefailureThelanguageacquisitiondevicehastobetriggeredbeforeacertainagethatofpuberty.Sufficientexposetoalanguageenvironmentattherighttimeisessentialtolanguageacquisition.
5.ThefollowingaresomeinstancesofusingEnglishforcommunication.WhatspecificfunctiondoeseachuseofEnglishserveinthefollowingpicturesInformativeintheformofcommandingDirectiveAdvertisingintheformofrequestingDirectivePersuadingintheformofthreateningDirectiveRecruiting6.Iconicityoflanguageisanaspectoflanguagewhereformechoesmeaning.Onomatopoeiaalsoknownas“soundsymbolism”isonetypeoficonicity.Someresearchershavefoundotherevidenceoficonicity.Forexamplewordsbeginningwiththesoundcombinationsl-inEnglishoftenhaveanunpleasantsenseasinslitheringslimyslugs.Herearesomequestions:a.Isthe“unpleasant”senseactuallytrueofallorevenmostwordsbeginningwithsl-inEnglishNo.e.g.slight.b.ArethereanyothersoundsorsoundcombinationsthatyouassociatewithparticularmeaningsGliding:slideslipslippery;Rolling:tumblecrumblestumblec.Howaboutthevowelsoundsinwordsthatidentifynear-to-speakerconceptsthisnearhereversusfar-from-speakerconceptsthatfarthereWhatisthedifferenceIsitageneralpatterndistinguishingtermsforthingsthatarenearversusfarinEnglishWhataboutthecaseinChineseFrontvowelsfornear-speakerconcepts;centralorbackvowelsforfar-from-speakerconcepts.ThereseemstobeasimilarkindofpatterninChinese.C.f.近jin/远yuan;这zhe/那na
7.Inmanyoftheworld’slanguagesthereareso-callednurserynamesforparents.InEnglishforexamplecorrespondingtothewordmotheristhenurserynamemamaandforfatheronefindsdadaandpapa.Thereisremarkablesimilarityacrossdifferentlanguagesintheformofthesenurserynamesforparents.ForexampleinChineseandNavajomacorrespondstoEnglishmama.WhydoyouthinkthatthisisthecaseBilabialsarelearnedandproducedfirstbecausetheyaretheeasiest.
8.a.Whataresomeofthechangeswhichappeartohavetakenplaceinthechild’sabilitytouseEnglishduringthatperiodLikethebasicallyproperuseofinterrogativesandthecorrectuseofinflection.b.WhatdothesechangessuggestabouttheorderoflanguageacquisitionCompletesentencesareacquiredlaterthanellipticalones.Inflectionisacquiredatalatestage.Unit2TheSoundsofEnglish[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.[i:]and[i]areallophonesofthesamephoneme.F
2.NotallEnglishphonemeshaveallophones.TNote://and/j/occurinonesinglepositionandthereforedonothaveallophones.
3.Thesamesetofvowelsisusedinalllanguages.F
4.Allsyllablesmustcontainatleastonevowel.FNote:Somesyllablesmaycontainnovowels.Theymayinsteademploysomesyllabicconsonantasinpeopleandmuscle.
5.ThemarkingofwordstressisarbitraryforthemostpartinEnglish.F
6.Englishisatonelanguage.FNote:Chineseisatonelanguage.■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1Whatisthephoneticenvironmentof[t]in[pit][i_#]2Arethefollowingpairsofwordsminimalpairsadeskvs.taskNo.bleavevs.LeakYes.li:vvs.li:k
2.ASK:1Characterizehowtheallophonesofthephoneme/k/arecomplementarilydistributed.[kh]ininitialposition;[k]after/s/;[k¬]infinalposition.2Isthereanyotherwayofcharacteringthecomplementarydistributionofclear[l]anddark[ł][l]beforevowels;[ł]elsewhere.
3.ASK:1Whatdistinctivefeaturemakes/f/and/v/different[voiced]2Canyouspecifythedistinctivefeaturesforthefollowingphonemesa//[fricative]+[voiceless]+[palatal]b/k/[velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive]c/n/[nasal]+[voiced]+[alveolar]
4.ASK:1Are[r]and[l]incomplementarydistributionInwhatenvironmentdoeseachoccurYes.[r]occursbeforevowels;[l]occursaftervowels.2DotheyoccurinanyminimalpairsNo.3Suppose[r]and[l]areallophonesofonephoneme.Statetherulethatcanderivetheallophonicforms.[r]islateralizedwhenitoccursaftervowels.
5.ASK:1Canyougivemoreexamplesofassimilationcompatriotsing2CanyoufindanyexceptionsinputunbeatableCanberra3WhatphoneticsegmentsconditionthischangeTheconsonantimmediatelyafterthevowel.[Note]2[tai]shouldbe[tay].
6.ASK:1Canyougivemoreexamplesoffreevariationadvertisement[əd΄və:tismənt][əd΄və:tizmənt]association[əsəusi΄eiən][əsəui΄eiən]2WhydoyouthinksuchaphenomenonexistsinalanguagelikeEnglishIndividualvariationisresponsibleforthisphenomenon.
7.ASK:1Whichsoundisdeletedin“sign”“design”and“resign”[g]2Canyouofferotherexamplesofdeletionparadigmaticcondemnation3Canyougivesomewordsthatinvolvetotaldeletionplumbplumber;climbclimbing4ArethereanyothertypesofdeletioninEnglishdebtknow
8.ASK:1CanyouthinkofaphoneticdescriptionoftheregularpatternintheseexpressionsTheyallstartwithafronthighvowelandfollowupwithamidorlowvowel.2Canyouthinkofanypossibleexplanationfortheobservedpattern[i]involvestheleastdegreeofmouthopeningwhilethemidorlowvowelsnecessitatebiggeropening.Thereisanincreaseofmouthopeninginpronouncingthewholewordwhichissymbolicinmeaning.
9.ASK:1WhatarelikelypositiveeffectsofusingalliterationUseoneofthepoeticexamplestoillustrate.Coherenceconnectednesssmoothnessconsistency.Take“IslipIslideIgloomIglance”forexample.Thedoublealliterationinvolvedhelpstocreateapictureofsmoothandcoherentdance.2IsthereasimilaruseofalliterationinChineseYesthoughlessoften.花好月圆isagoodexample.
10.ASK:1Whatisthestylisticeffectofrhymingechoingagreementcorrespondenceetc.2CanyoufindmoreproverbsthatinvolveinternalrhymingFirstthriveandthenwive.Fancypassesbeauty.■ExercisesTask3:StudyQuestions
1.a.DoesthestringofsoundsmeananythingtoyouIfwewanttotalkreallygoodwe’llhavetoinventvowels.b.WhatdoesthepicturesuggesttoyouabouttheroleofconsonantsandvowelsinEnglishConsonantsarethebackbonesofsyllablesandwords.
2.SomephonetictranscriptionsbelowareEnglishwordssomearenotexistingwordsbutarepossiblewordsornonsensewordsandothersaredefinitely“foreign”orimpossiblebecausetheyviolateEnglishsequentialconstraints.Specifyeachofthea-ecasesasillustrated.WordPossibleForeignReasonExample:[pa:k][tif][lkib]a.[ŋa:f][]mustoccurafteravowel.b.[ski:]skic.[knait]d.[meij][]mustoccurinitiallybeforeavowel.e.[blaft]
3.InEnglishthe/i/vowelbecomesalmostaslongas/i:/undercertainconditionswrittenas/i:/forconvenience.Considertheexampleslistedbelow:a.Listthephonemesthatconditionthechange.voicedconsonantsb.Statetherulethatseemsinvolved.[i]islengthenedbeforeavoiced]consonant.Note:Startwiththefactthatthe/i/isbasicandthatshort/i/becomeslong/i:/.Thechangefromshort/i/tolong/i:/isphonologicallydetermined;thatisthelengtheningtakesplaceinthepresenceofcertainphonemes.Agoodstrategyistofirstlistthephonemestotherightoflong/i:/thenlistthosetotheleft.Asananswertoathenonewouldproposethat/i/become/i:/wheneverthephonemestotheright/dmlbzjŋ/occurimmediatelyafterthatvowel.Thishypothesislookspromisingbecauseinfacttheshortvariant/i/neveroccursbeforethesesegments.ThenextquestioniswhatisitaboutthephonemesontherightthatunifythemasaclassOnemayfindthatthesephonemesareallvoiced[+voice]andinfacttheshort/i/neverlengthensbeforevoicelesssegments.Thustheanswertobisthatthevowel/i/islengthenedbeforethenaturalclassofvoicedconsonants.
4.Theuseofplural–sinEnglishhasthreedifferentbutveryregularphonologicalalternatives.a.Canyouworkoutthesetofsoundswhichregularlyprecedeseachofthesealternatives/s/towordslikeshipbatbookandcough;voicelessplosives[voiceless]/z/towordslikecabladcaveragandthing;aftervoicedconsonants[voiced]/əz/towordslikebusbushjudgechurchandmaze.after/s////d//z/b.Whatfeaturesdoeseachofthesesetshaveincommon[palatal]or[alveolar]+[fricative]c.Isthereanypatternregardingthedifferentpronunciationsofthepasttensemarker[t]aftervoicelessconsonantsexcept[t];[d]aftervoicedconsonantsexcept[d];[id]after[t]or[d].d.Doyouthinkthatoneofthesephonologicalformsfor–edismorebasicwiththeothersbeingderivedfromitinaregularwayWhichandhow[d]ismorebasic.[t]afterdevoicing.[id]afterepenthesisi.e.additionofasound.
5.Belowarethreecolumnsofwordswithdifferentpatternsofstress:a.HowisstressdistributedineachcolumnpenultimateforA;lastsyllableforB;onthelastsyllable.b.InColumnBwhatkindsofvowelsappearinthelastsyllableHowdoesthesyllabicstructureofColumnCdifferfromAandBInColumnBlongvowelsordiphthongsappearinthelastsyllable.ThelastsyllableofthewordsinCendsinconsonantclusters.[Note]For“usurp”“r”maybepronouncedasin/ju:΄zərp/.
6.Thefollowingisalistofwordsthatarespeltinasimilarway:fuddy-duddyhocus-pocusnamby-pambyfuzzy-wuzzyhurly-burlyrazzle-dazzlehanky-pankylovey-doveyroly-polyhelter-skeltermumbo-jumbosuper-dupera.WhatsimilaritycanyouspotamongthewordslistedAllpairsarethesameexcepttheinitialconsonants.b.WhateffectsmaysuchwordshaveincommonwhentheyareputintouseRedundancyrepetitivenessetc.
7.Writethephonetictranscriptionforeachofthefollowingwords.Omit.
8.Readthefollowingwordsorphrasesandpointoutthephonologicalprocessesthatyieldassimilation.apat/pæt/pan/pãn/sat/sæt/Sam/sãm/Nasalizationrule:[-nasal][+nasal]/_____[+nasal]bsince/sins/sink/siŋk/hint/hint/dink/diŋk/Velarizationrule:[-velarl][+velar]/_____[+velar]cfivepits/faifpits/loveto/lftə/Devoicingrule:[+voiced[-voiceless]/_____[-voiceless]
9.a.Commentontheuseofrhymealliterationandassonancethatisuseofsyllableswithacommonvowelasin“come”-“love”inthispoem.HowaretheyusedtostressthesenseofsuperficialityandlackofmeaningthepoetistryingtoconveyhereNoteespeciallytheroleofrhymingpairsofmonosyllablesandtheireffectonmeter.assonance:[ri:t][skri:n][spi:t][ud][huk][buk]Theryhmedwordsallmonosyllabicandstressedaresemanticallyunrelatedandseparated.Alliterationisonlysporadicallyused.Assonancesuggestsapparentconnectionbutactualdisconnectedness.b.Commentmorecarefullyonmeterinthefirsttwostanzas.HowdoesitcontributetothemeaningHowandwheredoesitworkagainstourexpectationsLackofregularityandthusunpredictability.
10.CollectsomedatatoshowthatEnglishadvertisementsnewspaperheadlinesEnglishsongsandpresidentialaddresseesometimesmakeuseofalliterationandrhyming.Omit.
11.WhatinterestingthingsdospeecherrorstellusaboutlanguageanditsuseCollectafewcasesofslipsoftonguefromdailyconversations.Speecherrorsareoftenexplainableoftensemanticallymotivated.Unit3TheUnitsofEnglish[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.AllwordsinEnglishhaveahierarchicalstructure.FNote:Mon-morphemicwordsdonot.
2.Clippingisoneofthethreemostimportantdevicesofword-formationinEnglish.FNote:Thethreemostimportantdevicesareaffixationcompoundingorcompositionandconversionorfunctionalshift.
3.IdiomsinEnglisharemodifiableinsomegrammaticalways.T
4.ThepresenceofconstructionsisuniquetoEnglish.F
5.EveryEnglishsentencehasasubject.FNote:Imperativesentencesdonothaveanysubject.■In-ClassActivities1.ASK:1Whatistheinfixusedintheabovelanguagedata“-um-“2WhatistheverbforminBontocfor“tobepoor”giventhatpusimeans“poor”“pumusi”
2.ASK:1WhatistheSamoanfor:a“theytravel”b“hesings”respectivelyasavavalibpese2FormulateamorphologicalruleregardinghowtoformthepluralverbformfromthesingularverbforminSamoan.Duplicatethepenultimatesyllable.
3.ASK:1WhichotheraffixesarethereinEnglishthatfunctionasmarkersofnegationdis-non-a-in-il-im-ir-2Whatpatternunderliestheuseofun-inthedataabovePositivetermscanhavenegativemorphemesaddedtothemasin“happy-unhappy”butsemanticallynegativeonesrarelydobecauseun-isdeprecatoryaswellasnegative.3Whyare“ungood”and“unbig”notfoundinEnglishalthoughGeorgeOrwellcoined“ungood”inhisnovelNineteenEighty-FourDoyouthinktheyareaccidentalgapsinthelexiconofEnglishTherealreadyexistwordsthatcorrespondto“ungood”and“unbig”.Itisnotaccidental.Thisiswhatistechnicallycalledlexicalblocking.4ReadthefollowingextractfromLewisCarroll’sThroughtheLooking-Glass.HowdoyouthinkHumptyDumptywouldexplaintheword“un-birthday”toAlice“Un-birthday”meanssomedaythatisnotone’sbirthday.5Thefactthatun-canbebothaverbprefixandanadjectiveprefixmayexplaintheoccurrenceoftheambiguousword“unlockable”.CanyouimaginetwosituationscorrespondingtothetwosensesofthewordCanyougivemoreexampleslike“unlockable”Imagineyouareinsidearoomandyouwantsomeprivacy.Youwouldbeunhappytofindthedoorisunlockable–“notabletobelocked.”Nowimagineyouareinsidealockedroomtryingtogetout.Youwouldbeveryrelievedtofindthatthedoorisunlockable–“abletobeunlocked.”Thesetwomeaningscorrespondtotwodifferentstructuresasfollows:AdjectiveAdjectiveun-AdjectiveVerb-ableVerb-ableun-VerblocklockInthefirststructuretheverb“lock”combineswiththesuffix–abletoformtheadjectivelockable“abletobelocked”.Thentheprefixun-meaning“not”combineswiththederivedadjectivetoformanewadjectiveunlockable“notabletobelocked”.Inthesecondcasetheprefixun-combineswiththeverblocktoformaderivedverbunlock.Thenthederivedverbcombineswiththesuffix–abletoformunlockable“abletobeunlocked.”Otherexamplesareunbuttonalbeunzippableandunlatchable.
4.ASK:1HowaretheverbsinColumnAdifferentfromthoseinColumnBVerbsinColumnAaretransitivewhilethoseinColumnBaregenerallyintransitive.2Canweuse“abletobeX-ed”toparaphrase“perishable”No.“Perish”isintransitive.3Afurthercomplicationwith-ableisthatinwordslike“unthinkable”thesuffixmeansmorethan“abletobeX-ed”.WhyCanyouthinkofmorewordsofthistypeunbreakablepresentablereadablequestionablepayablewashable.4Nowlet’slookatanothercomplication.Noneofthefollowingwordsarepermitted.Whatdoesthissuggestabouttheuseofthesuffix“-able”“-able”arenotattachedtonounsadjectivesorprepositions.
5.ASK:1NotethecontrastbetweenlistAandListB.CanyouthinkofanyreasonthatcanexplainwhythesetofwordsonListBareimpossiblewordsinEnglishVerbsonListBareintransitive.2Howarethere-wordsonListCandListDdifferentfromthoseonListAWordsonListCaremadeupofre-+adjectives.InthewordsonListD“re-”means“back”insteadof“again”.3Somere-prefixedwordsmaymeanmorethanthesimpleadditionofthemeaningofre-andthemeaningofitsbase.Forexample“rewrite”means“writesomethingagainespeciallyinadifferentorimprovedform”.Canyougivemoreexampleslike“rewrite”rebuildrethinkretryretellreorganizereconsiderreformetc.
6.ASK:1CanyougivesomeexamplesthatyouconsidertobechunksOmit.2ReadthefollowingspokendataofaChinesestudent.CanyoupointoutthechunksusedinitCanyouclassifythemintosometypesItisthemostunforgettablebirthdayum…thatI…andIcannotforgetitforforever.Um…ititwaswhenIwasafreshman.Itisthefirstyearum…Ileftmyfamilyandspendmybirthdayalone.Um…Irememberclearlyum…thatdayIstrodegloomilyatcampusalongforalongtimeum.Andum…um…IIfeltvery…IIfelt…Ifeltverygloomybecausenooneumnooneexceptmyparentsumremembermybirthdayandandwanandwantedtoum…andwantedtostaywithmeformybirthday.Um…um…IdidIdidnotwentbackIdidnotgobacktothedormitoryum…untilum…untilseveno’clockintheevening.Um…thelightthelightinthedormitorywasoff.Obviouslyumtherewasno…therewasnobodystayinginthedormitory.Um…butnowum…itmay…it…it…seemedum…itseemedthatitdoesn’tmatter.Um…AndIopenthedoorum…andIfoundexceptdarknesstherewasnothing.Suddenlyasong“Happybirthdaytoyou”sound.IfeltIfeltveryastonished.Thenthelightwasturnedon.Somefamiliarfacesum…umfulloffullofsweetsmilestowardsme.Umtheyweremydormtheyweremydormmates…Yestheystillrememberedum…mybirthdaymybirthday.Andinfacttheyhave…theyindeedpreparedforittwoyearsago.Theyboughter…averybeautifulcakeformeandthatnightum…wesangwedancedand…andhadthatdeliciouscake.IfeltveryhappyandandlaterI…ImadeacalltomyparentsthattoldthemthatIhasspentaveryunforgettablebirthdaywithmyroommates.verbal:went/goback;turnedon;preparefor;makeacalltoadjectival:fullofprepositional:atcampusitshouldbe“oncampus”though;foralongtime;intheevening;infactclausal:itseemedthat….;itdoesn’tmatter
7.Thenotionofsubjectmaybeclassifiedintothreetypes:grammaticalsubjectthemajornominalpartcorrespondingtothepredicatelogicalsubjectthedoerorexecutoroftheactionconcernedandpsychologicalsubjectthefirstmajorcomponentofthesentencelikeanominalphraseanadverbialphraseoraprepositionalphrase.Forinstancea.JohngrammaticalsubjectpsychologicalsubjectlogicalsubjectrobbedtheCityBanklastnight.b.TheCityBankgrammaticalsubjectpsychologicalsubjectwasrobbedbyJohnlogicalsubjectlastnight.c.LastnightpsychologicalsubjectJohngrammaticalsubjectlogicalsubjectrobbedtheCityBank.AnalyzethefollowingnewspaperheadlinesfromtheWashingtonPostJuly21-242006intermsoftheeffectofsubjecttypeselection.aInIraqMilitaryForgotLessonsofVietnampsychologicalbEvacuationRulesSeparateN.Va.FriendsgrammaticalcWoodsIsCloselyFollowedAtBritishlogicalgrammatical
8.ASK:1CanyouwritethepublicsignsincompleteformsYoumaypushthebuttonandwaitforthesignalofwalk.Youmustusecautionwhenthegroundiswet.2WhatrulesaretherewhenwewriteellipticalEnglishnewspaperheadlinesa.OmitauxiliaryorlinkingverbBE;b.Omitdeterminers;c.Omitindefinitenounsofperson.d.OmitThereBe.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.Pointouttheword-formationprocessthatappliestoeachofthefollowingwords:Affixation:worsenendearmentConversion:dustv.planev.Compounding:laptopairsickdaughter-in-lawBack-formation:edittelevisepeddleswindleswindlerShortening:tecdetectiveprofprofessorbikebicycleBlending:brunchurinalysisurine+analysisfantabulousfantasy+fabulousInitialism:WTOWorldTradeOrganizationAcronym:laserlightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiationFIFAFederationInternationaledeFootballAssociationCoinageintheformsofinventionandeponym—wordsderivedfrompropernames:XeroxnylonjumbonameofanelephantbroughttotheUnitedStatesbyP.T.Barnum
2.Howaretheopen-classwordsandtheclosed-classwordsdifferentfromeachotherOpen-classwords:1largeinnumber;2easytoexpand;3mainlynounsverbsadjectivesandadverbs.Closed-classwords:1smallinnumber;2stable;3basicallypronounsprepositionsfunctionwordsetc.
3.Whataretheinflectionalmorphemesinthefollowingphrasesathegovernment’spolicies’s;-sbthelatestnews-estcIsn’titsnowing!-ingdtwofrightenedcows-ed;-s
4.SupposeaspeakerofEnglishinventsthefollowingitalicizedEnglishwordsasajoke:“they’realwayscausingacommotion.Itellthemnottocommotebuttheyinsistonbeingbigcommoters.”WhatprocessofwordcreationdoesthisexampleillustrateandwhyWhatdothenewwordsmeanItisaprocessofback-formation.“Commote”meanstheactofcausingdisorderand“commoter”meanssomeonewhocausesdisorder.
5.CountthefunctionwordsinthefollowingpassageexcerptedfromStephenCrane’sTheRedBadgeofCouragep.
1.Thecoldpassedreluctantlyfromtheearthandtheretiringfogsrevealedanarmystretchedoutonthehillsresting. Asthelandscapechangedfrombrowntogreenthearmyawakenedandbegantotremblewitheagernessatthenoiseofrumors. Itcastitseyesupontheroadswhichweregrowingfromlongtroughsofliquidmudtoproperthoroughfares. Ariveramber-tintedintheshadowofitsbankspurledatthearmysfeet;andatnightwhenthestreamhadbecomeofasorrowfulblacknessonecouldseeacrossittheredeyelikegleamofhostilecampfiressetinthelowbrowsofdistanthills.Note:Functionwordsarethosethathavelittlesemanticcontentoftheirownandchieflyindicategrammaticalrelationships.Commonfunctionwordsincludeprepositionsconjunctionsarticlesetc.Theyarealsocalled“formwords”or“functors”.
6.WhichofthefollowingcontainverbphraseidiomsForeachidiomprovideaparaphrasewithonewordinsteadoftheidiom.1a.Johnwentinforstampcollecting.[like]b.Janewentinforacheck-up.2a.Johncamedownwiththeguns.b.Janecamedownwiththeflu.[contracted]3a.Johncameupwiththeguns.b.Janecameupwithabrilliantidea.[got]4a.Thatmusicdoesn’texactlyturnmeon.[excited]b.Janedidn’tturnonthetap.5a.Johnpassedoverthehouse.b.Thepresidentpassedoverthepeaceproposal.[disregarded]6a.Johnranafterdinner.b.JohnranafterJane.[pursued]
7.InEnglishsomeintransitiveverbscanbeconvertedintoaspecialtypeoftransitiveverbscalledcausativeverbs.Herearesomeexamples.Canyougivemoreexampleshaltalterend
8.ThedistinctionbetweenauxiliaryverbsandmainverbsisabasiconeinEnglish.Auxiliaryverbsarefrontedtoformquestionswhereasmainverbscannotbefrontedinthisfashion.Thefollowingsentencesillustratethreeadditionaldifferencesbetweenmainverbsandauxiliaryverbs.Whatarethesedifferencesplacementof“not”;contractionpossible;tagquestions;etc.
9.Countthenumberofclausesinthefollowingparagraphsandcategorizethemintodifferenttypes.Theamountofstressapersoncanwithstanddependsverymuchontheindividual.Somepeoplearenotafraidofstressandsuchcharactersareobviouslyprimematerialformanagerialresponsibilities.Othersloseheartatthefirstsignsofunusualdifficulties.Whenexposedtostressinwhateverformwereactbothchemicallyandphysically.Infactwemakechoicebetween“flightandfight”andinmoreprimitivedaysthechoicesmadethedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.Thecriseswemeettodayareunlikelytobesoextremebuthoweverlittlethestressitinvolvesthesameresponse.Itiswhensuchareactionlastslongthroughcontinuedexposuretostressthathealthbecomesendangered.Suchseriousconditionsashighbloodpressureandheartdiseaseshaveestablishedlinkswithstress.Sincewecannotremovestressfromourlivesitwouldbeunwisetodosoevenifwecouldweneedtofindwaystodealwithit.1apersoncanwithstand2Theamountofstressdependsverymuchontheindividual3Somepeoplearenotafraidofstress4suchcharactersareobviouslyprimematerialformanagerialresponsibilities5Othersloseheartatthefirstsignsofunusualdifficulties6Whenexposedtostress7Whenexposedtostressinwhateverform8wereactbothchemicallyandphysically9Infactwemakechoicebetween“flightandfight”10inmoreprimitivedaysthechoicesmadethedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath11wemeettoday12Thecrisesareunlikelytobesoextreme13howeverlittlethestress14itinvolvesthesameresponse15whensuchareactionlastslongthroughcontinuedexposuretostress16Itis….that….17healthbecomesendangered18Suchseriousconditionsashighbloodpressureandheartdiseaseshaveestablishedlinkswithstress19Sincewecannotremovestressfromourlives20itwouldbeunwisetodoso21evenifwecould22weneedtofindwaystodealwithit671319and21areadverbialclausesoftimereasonconcessionsuppositionetc.;1and11areattributiveclauses;15isapredicativeclause.Othersareeitherindependentclauseslike345910and18orthemainclausesinthecomplexsentenceslike281220and
22.
10.ThefollowingisanexcerptfromJamesJoyce’sUlysses.WhathasbeendeletedinmanyofitssentencesWhateffectdoesJoyceachievebyusingthisdeletionNonotlikethat.Abarrenlandbarewaste.Vulcaniclakethedeadsea:nofishweedlesssunkdeepintheearth.Nowindwouldliftthosewavesgreymetalpoisonousfoggywaters.Brimstonetheycalleditrainingdown:thecitiesoftheplain:Sodom.Gomorrah.Edom.Alldeadnames.Adeadseainadeadlandgreyandold.Oldnow.Itboretheoldestthefirstrace.AbenthagcrossedfromCassidy’sclutchinganagginbottlebytheneck.Theoldestpeople.Wanderedfarawayoveralltheearthcaptivitytocaptivitymultiplyingdyingbeingborneverywhere.Itlaytherenow.nowitcouldbearnomore.Dead.Thedeletiongivespeopletheimpressionthatthethoughtsofthecharacterarenotsmoothcoherentcompleteetc.Unit4TheStructuresofEnglishI[Checkyourunderstanding]
1.WordorderplaysanimportantroleintheorganizationofEnglishsentences.T
2.Allambiguoussentencesresultfromourfailuretouseproperorganization.FNote:Wecanconsciouslyavoidambiguitythough.
3.Withtransformationswecanorganizeasentencethewaywelike.FNote:Transformationsarerulegovernedandconstrained.
4.LikeEnglishmodernChineseisaSVOlanguage.TNote:ButChinesealsoemploystheme-themeorganizationalote.g.他的话我没听见■In-ClassActivities1.ASK:1CanyouthinkofothermodesofrecursionRelative-clauserecursion.2GiveoneexampleofVPrecursion.Omit.
2.ASK:1Paraphrasethetwopartsofthesentencebeforeandafter“because”.UnderJane’sinfluenceJohnbecameagoodhusband.SheservesasagoodwifeforJohn.2WhichsentencepatternsdothetwopartsbelongtoVOC;VOO3Canyoufindmoreverbslike“make”inEnglishleaveallowetc.
3.ASK:1IsthesignambiguousIfsouseparaphrasestoshowthedifferentreadings.a.Donotletsuchsituationhappenthatnooneattendsthevaluables.b.Donotgoawayfromthevaluablesthatarenotattended.2IstheambiguityinvolvedthesamekindasthatinThemotheroftheboyandthegirlarrivedNo.Ambiguityinthelattercasearisesfromcoordinationasshownbytheuseof“and”.3Newspaperheadlinesandadvertisementsoftendeliberatelyemployambiguitytoattractcustomersorreaders.HowarethefollowingambiguousaANewModelForGettingRichOnline“Online”maymodifyboth“model”and“gettingrich”.bTwoPhilippineshipscollide--onedies.5“One”mayrefertobothpassengersandoneoftheships.cEyedropsoffshelf.a.Aneyeofsomebody’sdropsoffshelf.b.Eyedropsasakindofmedicineareoffshelfi.e.outofsale.dWanted:Amantowashdishesandtwoyoungwaitresses.a.Wasted:amantowashbothdishesandtwoyoungwaitresses.b.Wanted:twoyoungwaitressesandamanwhosejobistowashdishes.4IsthefollowingpublicsignambiguousNo.“DogFreePark”means“aparkwheredogsarenotallowed”.
4.ASK:1ArethesesentencepatternsfoundinEnglishbutnotinChineseYes.Englishemployssomeformalsubjectlike“there”and“it”.Chinesemayallowsubjectlesssentences.2CanyouthinkofanyothersentencepatternsinEnglishthatarenotsharedbyChineseFancymeetingyouhere!Nowonderyouweresoangry.
5.ASK:1WhatsimilaritiesdothosesentencesinthesecondcategoryshareTheobjectispronominal.2WhatisthespecialconditionthatnecessitatesparticlemovementWhentheverbphrasetakesapronounasitsobjectparticlemovementisamust.Thuswemustsay“lookitup”insteadof“lookupit”.VPVPVPVParticleNPVNPParticleVNPParticlePron
6.ASK:1IsthereanydifferenceinmeaningbetweenthesentencesinthefirstpairaItispossiblethatonlyasmallnumbersofbooksweresoldout.bItislikelythatalargenumberofbooksweresoldoutalthoughJohndidnotsellmany.2Howarethesentencesinthesecondpairdifferentfromeachotherbismoreemphaticthananowthatitdeviatesfromthenormalwayofsentenceorganizationresultinginwhatwecallforegrounding.
7.ASK:1CanyouwriteoutfourdifferentphrasesinEnglishillustratingeachoftheVPtypesa.readb.readanovelc.takethebookoffthedeskd.thinkthatlifeisdifficult2Canyouusetheabbreviatoryconventionabovetointegratethefollowingsetsofrulesintoasinglerulea.A→BCb.W→XYZ
8.ASK:1Howmanysentencetypesarecoveredbythedata1MexicoVoteTallyGivesFree-TraderANarrowVictory[SVOO]2IsraeliTanksMeetFierceResistance[SVO]3RulingKeepsDeLayonBallot[SVOC]4FavoritismTrialHurtsChicagoMayor[SVO]5DiscoveryDocksWithSpaceStation[SVO]6RussiasSignaltoStationsIsClear:CutU.S.Radio[SVC]7MayorsStadiumProposalAdvances[SV]8DumfriesRegretsRaidonHomeless[SVO]9ADrivenPresidentFacesaWorldofCrises[SVO]10ConsultantBreachedFBIsComputers[SVO]2WhichtypeoccursmostfrequentlySVOTask3:StudyQuestions
1.Itisimportantthattherulesofsyntaxspecifyallandonlythegrammaticalsentencesofthelanguage.Whyisitimportanttosay“only”ThatiswhatwouldbewrongwithagrammarthatspecifiedasgrammaticalsentencesallofthetrulygrammaticalonesplusafewthatwerenotgrammaticalThegrammaticalruleswillbecomeinvalidbecausewewillnotknowwhichsentencesaregrammatical.
2.AnalyzehowthefollowingsentencesareincorrectaccordingtoEnglishgrammar.a.Snowingoutside.“Itis/was”cannotbedeleted.b.JanelovesJohnshecallshimeveryday.Thisisarun-onsentence.Thesentencecontainstwoindependentsentences.c.Therearetwoboysplayfootballontheground.Thesentencecontainstwofiniteverbs.d.JaneisverykindtoJohnforexampleshepreparesdinnerforhimwhenevershecan.Thisisarun-onsentence.“Forexample”isnotaconjunctionandthuscannotlinktwoclausesintoacomplexsentence.e.Diligentisveryimportanttosucceed.“Diligent”cannotfunctionasthesubjectbecauseitisanadjective.InEnglishthesubjectaswellastheobjectmustbenominal.f.Johnfindthetwobookveryinteresting.Thereisalackofgrammaticalconcordinnumberbetweenthesubjectandthepredicateverb.g.Johnisagreatleaderhoweverheissometimestoostrict.Thisisarun-onsentence.“However”isnotaconjunctionandthuscannotlinktwoclausesintoacomplexsentence.h.AlthoughJanelovesJohnbutsheneversays“Iloveyou”tohim.InEnglish“although”and“but”donotco-occur.i.ThereasonJanelovesJohnisbecauseheiskindtoher.InEnglishwesay“thereason….isthat….j.–HaveyouseenJohnlatelyJane--Notseen.Whenansweringaquestiononerepeatstheauxiliaryverbratherthanthemainverb.k.Finishthejobintwodaysisimpossible.InEnglishthesubjectaswellastheobjectmustbenominal.“Finishthejob”isverbalratherthannominal.l.WhyJanedidn’tgotoBeijingwithJohnTheremustbethemovementoradditionoftheauxiliarywhenforminganinterrogativesentenceinEnglish.ThecorrectformisWhydidn’tJanegotoBeijingwithJohn
3.Paraphraseeachofthefollowingsentencesintwodifferentwaystoshowthatyouunderstandtheambiguityinvolved:1Smokinggrasscanbenauseating.a.Tosmokegrasscanbenauseating.b.Grassforsmokingcanbenauseating.2Johnfinallydecidedontheboat.a.OntheboatJohnfinallymadeadecision.b.Johnfinallydecidedtousebuyetc.theboat.3Jane’sappointmentwasshocking.a.Jane’sappointmentofsomeonewasshocking.b.Jane’sbeingappointedbysomeonewasshocking.4Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.a.Botholdmenandoldwomenarehardtolivewith.b.Womenandoldmenandarehardtolivewith.5Thegovernorisadirtystreetfighter.a.Thegovernorisafighteragainstdirtystreet.b.Thegovernorisastreetfighterwhoismeanandcorrupt.6Icannotrecommendhimtoohighly.a.Icannotrecommendhimtoohighlybecauseheisnotsogood.b.IcanrecommendhimashighlyasIcanbecauseheissogood.
4.Questionstypicallycomefromafirst-personspeakerandareaddressedtoasecond-personhearer.CanyourelatethisuseofquestionstothefactthatyouisdeletedfromabbreviatedquestionsCananysubjectbedeletedfromabbreviatedquestionsaslongasuseandcontextmakethedeletionrecoverableLikethebookFancymeetingJohnHereWanttohaveacigaretteWhenquestionsareusedtomakeanofferseekinformationetc.theunderstood“you”canbedeleted.
5.Givethepassiveversionofthefollowingsentences.1Philwateredthegardentoomuch.ThegardenwastoomuchwateredbyPhil.2Billexpectedmetoleavesoon.IwasexpectedtoleavesoonbyBill.3ThedoctorexpectedthetechniciantodeveloptheX-raysfast.a.ThetechnicianwasexpectedbythedoctortodeveloptheX-raysfast.b.ThedoctorexpectedtheX-raystobedevelopedfastbythetechnician.c.TheX-rayswereexpectedbythedoctortobedevelopedfastbythetechnician.
6.Studythefollowingsentencesandanalyzethemintermsofsentencepatterns.a.Johnseemshappy.[SVC]b.Thegirlssingquiteoften.[SV]c.TheyelectedBushpresidentagain.[SVOC]d.Chasingcatsisfunfordogs.[SVC]e.JanesentJohnabunchofroses.[SVOO]f.Johnneverkeepshisroomclean.[SVOC]g.Thefilmlastedtwohours.[SVA]h.JohnletJaneout.[SVOC]Unit5TheStructuresofEnglishII[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.EveryEnglishparagraphcontainsatopicsentencesupportingdetailsandasummarysentence.F
2.Onemaytellastorywhenarguingforathesis.T
3.Inorderfortwoneighboringsentencestobecohesiveonemustusesomeexplicitdevicetoconjointhem.F
4.Sincepeopletaketurnsspeakingoverlapsareunlikelyinconversation.F■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:a.Whatdoes“it”refertoMONEYb.Whatisomittedinthesentence“WORKHARD”isomittedafter“DOESN’T”.
2.ASK:a.WhatcomponentsmakeupthepublicnoticeAheading“CityHallPark”aprefacemajorcontentsandtimeofnotice.b.HowisthepublicsignorganizedBylisting.c.HowisitdifferentfromasimilarsignintheChinesecontextThereisusuallythesealednameoftheissuerofthenoticeintheChinesecontext.
3.ASK:a.IstheconversationcomposedofadjacencypairsNotwholly.b.IfnothowwouldyoucharacterizetheconversationTwoadjacencypairsareinsertedwithinanotherwiseadjacentpair.Theinsertedpairsaretechnicallycalledinsertionsequences.
4.ASK:a.HowwouldyoudescribeaconversationalrepairTheconversationalrepairhereiscomposedofatroublesourcefromLItheinitiationofarepairfromLitheselfrepairfromZhangandanoptionalfollow-upfromLi.b.ArethereothertypesofrepairindailyconversationApartfromotherinitiation+selfrepairwehaveothertypes:self-initiation+self-repairother-initiation+otherrepairandself-initiation+other-repair.Repaircanbeclassifiedaccordingtothecontentrepairedtoo.
5.ASK:a.WhatisthepatternforopeningatelephoneconversationinEnglishFirstwesummaronbysaying“hello”andwhenhearing“hello”fromtheresponderweidentifyourselvesbysaying“Thisisxxx.”or“xxxspeaking.”Wecometobusinessoncewegettherightreceiver.b.HowisthepatterndifferentfromthatofaChinesetelephoneconversationInChineseweidentifyourselvesbysaying“我是……”c.ArethereanydifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseintermsofclosingatelephoneconversationWeChineseoftenuseconcludingremarkslike“就这样”andsometimespromisetorecallagaininthenearfuture.ThesethingsareseldomfoundwhentelephonetalksareclosedinEnglish.
6.ASK:1Pointoutthecohesivedevicesusedintheparagraph.referenceGrammaticalellipsissubstitutiontenseconjunctionsLogicalconjunctsrepetitionLexicalreiterationmyronym2Whichtypeofcohesivedeviceisusedmostoftengrammaticaldevicesesp.substitution“it”and“its”andtense
7.ASK:1DoesChinesefollowthetopic-commentpatternHowcanitbedifferentfromEnglishinthisrespectYes.MoresothanEnglish.Englishattachesgreaterimportancetothegrammaticalsubject.2DowesometimesstartasentencewithnewinformationUseanexampletoillustrate.Yesthoughnotsooften.E.g.A:DoyouknowmycousinB:Jackishisname.
8.ASK:1WhatcharacteristicsdoeseachmodeofthematicprogressionhavewithregardtonarrativeeffectsType1:continuitysmoothflow.Type2:clearfocus;yetsomemonotony.Type3:complexityanddiversity.2AnalyzetheearlierexcerptfromLifeontheMississippiintermsofthematicprogression.Theme1Rheme1Type2Theme1Rheme2Theme1Rheme
39.ASK:1WhatisthethemethepoetseemstoconveyLackoflovebetweenthecouple.2HowdoesthelayoutofthepoembestrevealthethemeThewholepoemevensomewordsisdividedintotwohalveswithaverticallineinbetween.■ExercisesTask3:StudyQuestions
1.WhatdifferencesandsimilaritiesexistbetweenconversationandwrittendiscoursetextSimilarities:a.botharerule-governedandstructured.b.botharecommunicativebynature.Differences:CONVERSATIONDISCOURSE/TEXTa.oftenspontaneousandtransienta.ofteninvolvingmuchplanningb.involvingtwoormorepeopleb.monologicc.oftenfraughtwitherrorsc.usu.error-freed.ofteninformalorcolloquiald.generallyformal
2.Whatisthetypicalglobalormacrostructureofadata-drivenMAthesis/anoteofthanks/aresumThemainbodyofanM.Athesis;IntroductionLiteratureReviewMethodologyResultsandDiscussionConclusion.Anoteofthanksincludestermsofaddresswordsofthanksreasonsforgivingthanksapromiseofsomerewardcomplimentarycloseandsignature.Aresumgenerallyincludestheheadingnamecorrespondenceaddresseducationalbackgroundoccupationalbackgroundpersonalssuchasage/dateofbirthsexmaritalstatusetc..
3.ThefollowingconversationistakenfromHaroldPinter’sTheBirthdayParty.Whataspectsofthisfragmentofconversationalspeechwouldyoupointtoascharacteristicfeaturesofthistypeoflanguage-in-useAgreatdealofellipsis;informal.
4.a.Astorycanbedividedintoorientationevaluationcomplicatingactionandresolution.Analyzethetextsintermsofthesecategoriesnotallofthesewillbepresentinalltexts.Note:Orientationidentifiestheparticipantsinthenarrativeandprovidesthenecessarybackgroundinformation;evaluationisusedwhenonewantstomakeclearthesignificancebeingattributedtotheeventsandshowsthenarrator’spersonaljudgmentorattitude;bymeansofcomplicatingactionthenarratorbuildsthedramaticstructureorplotandsetsitinmotion;thenarrativeendswitharesolutiontosignaltheresultorconsequenceofthecomplicatingaction.aOnedaysomepeoplemovedinahouse
[0].Thearmyantgobbledupthehouse[C].Sothepeoplehadtostartalloveragain[R].bOncetherewasaparrotandshelaidanegg
[0].Theeggdidn’thatchandthemotherparrotwhosenamewasSheilastartedcrying.OnedaySheilaheardapeck-peckandthebabybirdwalkedout[C].Themotherbirdwasveryhappy[R].cOnceuponatimetherewasaladybugwhowasbusyeatingaphids.Thereareplantsinthegarden.Theladybugisalwaysinthegarden.Everydaytheladybugeatsaphids.Theladybugisalwaysonplants.Theladybugisalwayscatchingaphids[O].dOncetherewasasharkandtherewasanothershark
[0]andtheyatefishesandtheygotsofatthattheyexploded.Theseagotsohotthatitgotonfireandallthefishdied[C]andsharksandplantsdiedandtheseawasnotthere[R].eOnedayIplantedaseed
[0]andIwaitedandwaitedandwaiteduntilIwasanoldman.Thenitgrewalittlebit[C]andIdied[R].b.Arethereanyexamplesherethatarenotnarrativei.e.thatdonotusetemporallyorderednarrativeclausesc.Thereisnodevelopmentofplot.c.Causaland/orchronologicalsequenceinatextmaynotbeexplicitlyspecified.Givetwoexampleswheretheyareestablishedbyimplication.OnedaySheilaheardapeck-peckandthebabybirdwalkedout.Themotherbirdwasveryhappy.
5.FindtwomoreexamplesofeachfromnovelsbysuchauthorsasJamesJoyceHenryJamesandWilliamFaulkner.Omit.
6.Anadisashortdiscourse.Studythefollowingadandanalyzethewayitisconstructed.Discusstheperspectiveemployedanditseffectoncommunication.a.byparallelism;b.Theadtakestheperspectiveofthosewhostressaboutthebrochurefretabouttheexpenseareboredwithsomecommoncolorand/orbusiness.c.Theperspectiveiseffectiveinthatitappealstopeoplebyaddressingtheirconcerns.Unit6TheMeaningofEnglishI[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Agrammaticalsentenceisalsomeaningful.FNote:Notnecessarilyso.
2.Somewordsarealwayssuperordinateswhilesomeothersarealwayshyponyms.FNote:Wordsthatarehyponymstosomesuperordinatescantheoreticallybethesuperordinatestosomeotherwords.
3.Synonymsarethosewordsthatcanbeusedinterchangeablyinallcontexts.FNote:theoreticallyso
4.Antonymshaveoppositemeanings.FNote:Someantonymsarecomplementaryinmeaning.
5.AllEnglishwordshavetheirreferents.F■In-ClassActivitiesASK:1DoyoufindthesentencessoundqueerYes.2Ifyesgiveyourexplanationfortheiroddness.a.Thehamburgercannoteatbecauseitisinanimate.b.Thetelevisiondoesnotdrinkwaterbecauseitisinanimate.c.Adogdoesnotwriteanythinglikepoetrybecauseitisnothuman.3IsthepublicsigninthepicturebelowsemanticallyproblematicApparentlysobecause“leftlane”fillingthesubjectpositioncannot“turnleft”whichfillsthepredicateposition.Beinginanimatealanecannotturn.Howeverthissignisunderstandablebecauseweknowitisacaseofellipsis.Itisthevehicleontheleftlanethatmustturnleft.4InChinesewemaysay“晒太阳”“救火”“吃火锅”andthelike.HowaretheyspecialCanyouthinkofmoresimilarexpressionsAretheresimilarexpressionsinEnglishHowdoyoutranslatetheChineseexpressionsintoEnglishWebaskorgetwarmthunderthesunratherthandryorsolarizethesun.Wesavethingsoutofafireratherthansavethefireitself.Weeatamixtureoffoodoutofapotratherthaneatthepotproper.2.ASK:1HowcanthefollowingwordsbeanalyzedintosemanticfeaturesWhatfeatureiscommontothemlamb[-ADULT]+[+OVINE]calf[-ADULT]+[+BOVINE]piglet[-ADULT]+[+POREINE]puppy[-ADULT]+[+CANINE]kitten[-ADULT]+[+FELINE][-ADULT]iscommontoall.2Completethefollowingdatabyadevisingacategorythatdistinguishesthewordbusfromthewordcarandbgivingtheappropriatesymbolforthewords“bicycle”and“motorcycle”.[POWERED][CARRYPEOPLE][FOUR-WHEELED][PUBLICTRANSPORT]bus++++car+++-van+-+-bicycle-+--motorcycle++--
3.ASK:1Canyougivemoreexamplesforeachtypeofthemeronymy1component-object:window-housescreen-computer2member-collection:family-societyprovince-county3portion-mass:quarter-hourday-year4place-area:Beijing-ChinaJiangsu-China2HowarethevarioustypesofmeronymydifferentfromeachotherFor1anobjecthasotherkindsofcomponent.For2acollectionhasabignumberofsimilarordifferentmembers.For3amassisdividedintosomeportions.For4aplaceisfoundwithinorinsideanarea.3Doyouthinktherearefurthertypesofmeronymya.feature—activitypaying—shoppingb.stuff—objectaluminum—airplanegold—ringc.phase—processadolescence—growingup4.ASK:1DoyouagreewiththeideathatthesentencesaboveareredundantYes.2GiventhefactthatthesesentencesareusedforcommunicationcanyoufigureoutthereasonforsuchcombinationsForthesakeofemphasis.3Canyougivemoreexamplesofasimilarnaturethewholeworldthevastsea
5.ASK:1Canyoudeterminethe“unmarked”memberineachofthefollowingpairsThewordsthatareunderlinedarethe“unmarked”membersinthepairs.small-bigcheap-expensivewide-narrownear-farmany-feweasy-difficultearly-latedangerous-safefull-empty2Canyouthinkofanyspecialsituationswherethe“marked”memberismoreappropriatelyusedForinstancewhenwetalkaboutadwarfpeoplewilloftenaskhowshortthedwarfis.Thisshowsthatone’sexpectationandsocialconventionplayimportantrolesinusingthewords.
6.ASK:1Whichwordsarebeingplayedonintheconversationflour-flowerandgroundp.p.grind-groundn.2AretheycasesofpolysemyorhomonymyTheyaretypicalcasesofhomonymy.3Howabouttheword“carry”inthefollowingpictureItisacaseofpolysemy.Thetwosensesofthe“word”asfoundinthesloganarebasicallyrelated.
7.ASK:1WhatadvantagesarethereintheanalysisofEnglishvocabularyintosemanticfieldsThekindofanalysishelpstoestablishconnectionamongwordsandthusfacilitatesmemoryandretrieval.2CanyounameasemanticfieldandlistatleastfivemembersofitProfession:teacherbankerlawyerdoctorengineeretc.
8.ASK:1WhyisitcommontouseantonymsinproverbsLifeisdialectal.Theoppositesidescanshiftundersomecircumstances.2CanyougivetwomoreproverbsinvolvingtheuseofantonymsSmallsorrowsspeakgreatonesaresilent.Sometimesgainistolose.
9.ASK:1Howdoes“make”differfrom“do”intermsofcollocationGivesomeexamplestoillustrate.makealiving/ameal/friends/aface/aneffort/anattemptdoajob/one’sduty/thedishes/afavor2Whichverbscollocatewith“effect”and“role”produce/cause/bringabout/exercise/improve/heighten/weakenaneffectplay/act/assume/fill/fulfill/performarole3WhatimplicationsdoescollocationhaveforourlearningofEnglishLearnthecollocationasawholechunk.
10.Ask:1DoesyournamehaveameaningOmit.2DoyouagreethatnamingplaysanimportantroleineconomiclifeUseanexampletoillustrate.Yes.Thisexplainswhygoodbrandsmustbegoodnameslike“奔驰”,“联想”,etc.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.a.Howwouldyoudescribetheoddnessofthesesentencesintermsofsemanticfeatures1Lightingisnon-humanandthuscannotdoanythingwillingly.2Acatisnon-humanandthuscannotstudylinguistics.3Atableisinanimateandthuscannotlisten.b.Semanticviolationsarefrequentinpoetry.Forexamplewemaysay“aweek/hour/centuryago”butusuallydonotsay“atable/dream/motherago”.HoweverDylanThomasdoeswrite“agriefago”.HowwouldyouaccountfortheeffectofsuchusageTheusageaddsadurationalfeaturetogriefforpoeticeffect.c.CanyoufindmoresimilaruseoflanguageinEnglishliteratureThefollowingarefrome.e.cummings:“thesixsubjunctivecrumbstwitch”“aman…wearingaroundjeerforahat”.
2.While“listen”and“hear”aresemanticallyrelatedweusuallysay“welistenandwehear”.WhyisthisorderreversedinthepictureThosedisabledwhomaygodeafneedtorecovertheirhearingwiththehelpofdonators.Iftheycangetthehelpneededtheymayrecovertheirhearingandlistentootherslikenormalpeople.
3.Whichofthefollowingoppositesaregradablenon-gradableorreversivegradable:high-lowfair-unfairnon-gradable:absent-presentfail-passreversives/converseantonyms/relationalopposites:up-downleft-right
4.Studythefollowingpairsofwords.Whatisthebasiclexicalrelationbetweenthesepairsofwords1shallowdeepantonymygradable2matureripesynonymy3suitesweethomonymyhomophones4tablefurniturehyponymy5singlemarriedantonymynon-gradable/complementary6moverunhyponymyFor“mature”and“ripe”giveanexamplewhereonecanbeusedforcollocationbutnottheother.For“suite”and“sweet”giveanotherpairwithasimilarsemanticrelation.For“move”and“run”givemorewordsthatareinthesamesemanticrelationto“move”as“run”.Mature/ripe:amatureplayeraripetimeSuite/sweet:flour/flowerpast/passedMove/run:dashhopwalkjogetc.
5.Thefollowingaremorepairsofantonyms:alive-deadmale-femaleboy-girlpresent-absenttrue-falsehit-missa.WhichofthefollowingarecomplementaryoppositesAllofthepairs.b.Howdoyouaccountforthefollowingusagesormisuses:halfdead/alive*verydead/alivemoredeadthanalive*AismoredeadthanB“dead/alive”arecomplementaryoppositesandthustheydonottakedegreemodifiers.“halfdead/alive”isavividthoughunusualwayofdescription.Itdeviatesfromthenormalusagebytreating“dead/alive”asgradable.Thisusagehasbeenconventionalized.“moredeadthanalive”isalsoanidiomaticusagethatismotivatedinasimilarway.
7.ComponentialanalysiscanalsobeappliedtothestudyofEnglishverbs.Forexampledarkenkilluglify…[CAUSE]bringfallwalkrun…[MOTION]hitkisstouch….[CONTACT]buildimaginemake….[CREATION]seehearfeel….[SENSE]Nowstateasalientsemanticpropertyforeachofthefollowingverbs:stealtasteteachunderstandwantwritelikefeareat[GET]stealeat[CREATE]write[SENSE]taste[FEEL]likewantfear[COGNIZE]understand[INFORM]teach
8.Thefollowingsentencesareredundantinasemanticsense.Specifyhoweachisso.1Couldyourepeatthatwordagain“repeat”means“doingsth.again.2Theyhadalreadyheardhenamebefore.“haddone”means“hadalreadydonesth.”3Andthatwashisfinalconclusion.“conclusion”issomethingfinal.4Thechurchwasincloseproximity.“Proximity”meansclosedistance.
9.Foreachgroupofwordsgivenbelowstatewhatsemanticpropertyorpropertiesaresharedbytheawordsandthebwordsandwhatsemanticpropertyorpropertiesdistinguishtheclassesoftheawordsfromthebwords.1a.bachelormansonpaperboypopechiefb.bullroosterdrakeramBothare“male”.aare“human”;bare“non-human”.2a.tablestonepencilcuphouseshipcarb.milkalcoholricesoupmudBothare“objects”.aare“countable”;bare“non-countable”.3a.booktemplemountainroadtractorb.idealovecharitysinceritybraveryfearBothare“objects”.aare“concrete”;bare“abstract”.4a.pineelmashweepingwillowb.rosedandelionastertulipdaisyBothare“plants”.aare“trees”;bare“flowers”.5a.asktellsaytalkconverseb.shoutwhispermutterBothareverbalacts.aareverbalactsatnormalvolume;bareverbalactsaboveorbelownormalvolume.6a.aliveasleepdeadmarriedpregnantb.tallsmartinterestingbadtiredBothareadjectives.aarenon-gradableadjectives.baregradableadjectives.
10.Thenoun“length”referstothegeneraldimensioninwhichtheadjectives“long”and“short”describeregions.Findsuchabstractnounsforthefollowingpairsofadjectives.atall:shortheight2thick:thinthickness3heavy:lightweight4wide:narrowwidth5old:youngage6fast:slowspeed7far:neardistance8clever:stupidcleverness9hot:coldheat
11.Thereissubstantialevidencethattimeandspaceshouldbeconsideredrealizationsofthesamesemanticprimitivethecriteriaarepurelylinguisticnotphilosophicalorbasedonphysics.Onthebasisofthelistbelowwouldyoudesignatethisprimitiveas±SPACEor±TIMEGiveasmanyreasonsasyoucan.BeforeansweringthisquestionuseTheOxfordEnglishDictionarytocheckanyprepositionthatseemssurprisingtoyouineitherspatialortemporaluse.Thesemanticprimitiveis±SPACE.Thelistedwordsallconveythenotionofspacewhiletheirtemporalaspectsofmeaningarederived.Insomewordslike“inside”“behind”“between”etc.themetaphoriccolorisstilltangible.
12.InEnglishthereareanumberofwaystoformantonyms.Wecanaddtheprefixun-in-ir-ilimnon-dis-a-etc.HowaretheydifferentinactualusageUn-andnon-arehighlyproductivewhilea-isalmostnotproductiveatalltoday.In-ir-il-im-anddis-lieinbetween.Unlikewordscontainingun-andin-wordscontainingnon-dis-anda-aregenerallynon-gradable.
13.Usethefollowingexamplestodiscussthedifferencebetweensenseandreference.aThepresentpresidentofAmericaishumorous.“ThepresentpresidentofAmerica”hasaninterpretablesenseanditsreferencecanbeanypresidentdependingonthetimetheutteranceismade.bBytheyear3000ourdescendantswillhavelefttheearth.“Ourdescendants”hasaninterpretablesenseanditsreferencemaybeidentifieddependingonwhospeaks.Suchpeoplemaynotexistifthespeakerdoesnothavedescendantsthatcanliveuptotheyear
3000.cWhoevertriestokillthepresidentisinsane.“Whoevertriestokillthepresident”hasaninterpretablesenseanditsreferencemayexistornotatall.
14.SlipsoftonguenotonlyoccurinthearticulationofsoundsasshowninChapter2butalsorelatetotheexpressionofmeaning.Lookatthefollowing:IntendedUtteranceActualUtteranceErrorbridgeofthenosebridgeoftheneckwhenmygumsbledwhenmytonguesbledhecametoolatehecametooearlyMarywasyoungMarywasoldahorseofanothercolorahorseofanotherraceDiscusswhattypesofsemanticslipsarerepresentedinthedata.Nose-neckassociation:“nose”and“neck”arebothpartsofahumanbody.Inadditiontheybothbeginwiththe/n/sound.Gums-tonguesassociation:both“gums”and“tongues”arepartsofthemouth.Inadditionbothcontainthe/g/sound.Late-earlyassociationandyoung-oldassociation:thepairsofwordsareoppositeinmeaning.Color-raceassociation:both“color”and“race”relatecloselytothehorse.Theyarejusttwodifferentaspectsofthehorse’sfeatures.Unit7TheMeaningofEnglishII[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Differentlanguagesrepresenttheworldincompletelydifferentways.F
2.Metaphoricreasoningexplainsmuchoftheextensionofwordmeanings.T
3.Everysentencehasitstruthconditions.FNote:Interrogativesentencesandimperativesentencesmaynothavetruthconditions.
4.“Theme”asasemanticrolereferstothetopicthesentenceisabout.FNote:“Theme”asasemanticrolereferstotheoneorthingthatundergoesanaction.■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1WhatdoyouthinkgivesrisetothesemanticfuzzinessoflanguageTheremaybenoclearboundarybetweenobjectsintherealorimaginaryworldthatlanguagerepresents.Anotherreasonisthatlanguageisaneconomicalroughrepresentationoftheworld.Lastbutnotleastlanguageusersfailtounderstandtheworldproperly.2Canyoucitemoreexamplesoffuzzyexpressionstallbigquicklygreatlymuchmanyetc.3WhatadvantagesanddisadvantagesmaythefuzzypropertyoflanguagehaveasatoolofcommunicationAdvantages:1Itmakestheuseoflanguageeasyandflexible.2Itmakesexaggerationandthelikepossible.3Sometimesfuzzinessisprecision.Disadvantages:Mostofthetimeprecisionisimpossible.Vaguecommunicationoftenresults.
2.ASK:1Whatelsedowecompare“time”toWhatrelatedexpressionsdowehaveWemaycompare“time”tosomethingthatmoves.E.g.Astimeadvancesweknowworldbetterandbetter.Histimehascome.Wemayalsocompare“time”toakindofmedicine.E.g.Timehealsmosttroubles.2DoweusethesamekindofmetaphorsinEnglishandinChineseGivesomeexamplesthatshowtheirconvergenceanddivergence.Yes.节省/浪费时间,耗时etc.3Whatmetaphorsdoyouknowthatrelatetothefollowingthemeslanguage:桥梁、工具、资源life:舞台、行程、教科书friendship:纽带、贵重物品books:人类进步的阶梯、精神食粮motherland:母亲、归属
3.ASK:1InwhatwaysiscommunicatingideassimilartofoodintakeanddigestionInthecourseofcommunicationthehearertakesinformationfromthespeakerandprocessesit.Allthisissimilartofoodintakeanddigestion.2CanyougivetwomoreexpressionsinvolvingsimilarmetaphorsMylecturewaspurenonsensebuttheyreallyateitup.Whatshesaysisfoodforthoughtbutitgivesusonlyatasteofwhatshemeans.3Ideasaresometimesalsocomparedtoproducts.CanyougiveacoupleofexamplesinEnglishtodemonstratetherelatedmetaphoricalthinkingexchangeideaswithsb.marketone’sideasworkoutanidea
4.ASK:1Canyougivemoreexamplesofsimilarkindsbedownwiththefluegetovertheillnessundertheinfluenceofsb.2AretherecorrespondingmetaphorsinChineseYes.e.g心里低沉垂头丧气落了下风3Howwouldyouunderstandtheuseof“into”inthedifferentcontextsWhatisthenatureofXin“intoX”Useacoupleofotherexamplestoillustrate.Ina“into”means“totheinsideorinteriorofsth.”;inb“into”means“totheinsideorinteriorofsth.”butinametaphoricalwaybecauseinformationisnotanobjectthatcanbeplacedorfoundinthecomputer;inc“into”means“totheactivityoroccupationofsth.”Xisconceivedasacontainer.Otherexamples:Theyareintovegetarianism.Acarcrashedintoatree.5.ASK:1Canyouaddmoretermstothelisttumblerknifeashtray2CanyouworkoutwhattheprototypeitemoftablewareisOneresearchprocedurewouldbetocreatealistofthesetermsdownonesideofapagewithascalebesideeachterm.Thescalewouldgofrom5=excellentexampleof“tableware”to1=notreallyanexampleof“tableware”.Makecopiesofyourlistplusscaleandaskpeopletoindicatetheirchoicesonthescale.Thehighestscorewouldpresumablybetheprototype.WhatdoyouthinkofthisprocedureOmit.
6.ASK:1Whatarethelogicalrolesormeaningsoftheitalicizedothermemberssubjectorobject1Thegardenisswarmingwithbees.[location]2Theyloadedhayontothetruck.[patient]3Theyloadedthetruckwithhay.[instrument]4JohngaveJanethebook.[goal]5Thedogdied.[theme]6Noonfounduswaitingattherailroadstation.[time]2WhateffectsdoestheuseofdifferentkindsofsubjectsproduceNewperspective;bettercohesionifthesubjectisthetopic;vividnessasshownbypersonificationin
6.
7.ASK:1WhatarethemetaphorsusedintheheadlinesThemetaphorsareunderlinedasshownbelow:1车站“肥水”为何流入外人田——读者会诊“问题”中央门《扬子晚报》2004-10-192InMexicoStrainsAlongDemocracysPathTheWashingtonPostJuly2520063OneMansLongBattleToGetU.S.toKickOilWashingtonPostJuly2520064AWarBetweenNeighborsSeenFromTheirBackYardWashingtonPostJuly2420065GunSellersCaseRevealsHurdlesofEnforcementWashingtonPostJuly2320066InIraqMilitaryForgotLessonsofVietnamWashingtonPostJuly2320062Isanymetaphorusedmore“metaphorical”thantheothers“War”and“lesson”seemtobemostfrequentlyused.3HowdoestheChineseheadlinestrikeyouintermsofbeingmetaphoricalCanyouconfirmyourobservationwithmoreexamplesItemploysamixtureofmetaphorsagriculturalmedical.4AretheEnglishmetaphorsdirectlytransferabletoChineseAllexcept
5.5MetaphorsarealsoextensivelyusedinEnglishpoetry.Lookatthefollowingclassicexcerptanddiscusshowtheuseofmetaphorsenhancestheeffectofthepoeticcommunication.Herethewords“slings”[弹弓]and“arrows”helptomake“outrageousfortune”soundconcretesothatonecanconjureupapictureinwhichsomeonefullofhatredisusingtheslingsandarrowstotakehisorherrevenge.Similarlytheword“sea”helpsreaderstovisualizehowmanytroublesHamletissuffering.
8.ASK:1WhatarethemetonymsusedintheseheadlinesThemetonymsareunderlinedasshownbelow:1WhiteHouseSoftensToneOnEmbryoUseWashingtonPostJuly252006nameoflocationforU.S.government2ListofTopPentagonOrdersRevealsStrategyShiftWashingtonPostJuly242006nameofbuildingfortheU.S.DepartmentofNationalDefense3BushPollutionCurbsAreRatedEqualtoClintonsWashingtonPostJuly232006nameofpresidentfortheadministration4MicrosoftConfirmsItWillOfferDeviceToBattletheiPodWashingtonPostJuly232006brandnameforthecompany2CanyousupplyanyexampleinChinese莫斯科,联想,广东宏远etc.3WhichwordisacaseofmetonymyWhyisitpreferredtothereplacedwordTheword“winter”isusedfor“years”.Itismoreeffectiveinthatwhilethelatterisneutraltheformerrepresentssomethingnegativeandunpleasant.
9.ASK:1Whatdothetwotautologicalsentencesmeaninnormalcases“Boyswillbeboys.”—Boysarenaughty.“NBAisNBA.”—NBAhasahighstandardofperformance.2CanyoucomeupwithsimilarusesofChinese专家就是专家上海毕竟是上海10.ASK:1HowwouldyoudefinethesetofsemanticrolesforthefollowingverbsintermsofthepatternjustshownCOOK[AGENT_______THEME]BREAK[AGENT_______THEME]DIE[THEME______]PUT[AGENT_______THEMELOCATION]HAPPEN[THEME_______]OFFER[AGENT________THEMEGOAL]2WhataretheChineseequivalentsoftheseverbsDotheyallsharethesamesemanticstructuresoftheEnglishverbsIfnotgiveoneortwoexamplestoillustratethedifferences.Notallofthem.Exceptionsare“煮”and“死”.E.g.While“cook”canbebothtransitiveandintransitive“煮”istransitiveonly.While“die”isintransitiveinEnglish“死”canbeusedwithdoublearguments[论元]asin“张三死了父亲”althoughitisstilldebatablewhether“父亲”isanobjectornot.3Doesithelpinthisexercisetomakeadistinctionbetweenobligatoryrolesi.e.youmusthavetheseorthesentencewillnotbegrammaticalandoptionalrolestheseareoftenpresentbuttheirabsencedoesn’tmakethesentencesungrammaticalGoalinthesemanticstructureof“offer”isoptional.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.DoesChineseandEnglishdissectthespectrumofcolorinthesamewayNotexactly.Therearecolornameslike“orange”inEnglishthatdonothavesingle-wordequivalentsinChinese.
2.WhatitemwouldyouclaimtobetheprototypeofeachofthefollowingasportsbvegetablecvehicledbuildingOmit.
3.Humansareoftencomparedtodifferentthings.Lookatthefollowingpicture.WhatismancomparedtoCanyouthinkofotherthingsthatmaniscomparedtoBird.Manisalsocomparedtoanimalmachinecandleetc.
4.Sayingthat“timeismoney”isattemptingaconceptualmetaphor.Mostmetaphorsindeedareconceptual.Whenwearguewithothersweoftendosoasifwewerefightingawar.Suchconceptualizationgivesrisetomanyexpressionlike“winanargument”and“indefensiblearguments”.DoyouknowothersimilarexpressionsIsthesamekindofmetaphorizingemployedinChineseYes.Similarexpressionsare“attackanargument”“loseadebate”etc.TherearesimilarexpressionsinChinesethatsuggestthesamekindofmetaphorizing.
5.Wordsreferringtospendingandfinancesuchascostspendinvestbuysellalsohaveabstractmetaphoricalusesasin:ThatmistakewillcostyoualotHeinvestedalotoftimeintheprojectHepaiddearlyforhiswaysYou’reonlybuyingtroubleifyoudothat.Listthreeadditionalexamplesofthemetaphoricaluseofwordsfromtherealmofspendingandfinanceanddiscusshowthemetaphoricalusesarerelatedtotheconcretefinancialmeanings.AlsoisthesamekindofmetaphorizingemployedinChineseYes.Examples:buysb.’sideas;dosth.atthecostofone’slife;itpaystodosth.Yes.ThesamekindofmetaphorizingisemployedinChinese.
6.WhatistherelationifanybetweenthefollowingusesofthewordhotThesensesaremeaningsderivedfromthebasicsenseof“hot”i.e.havingorgivingoffheatcapableofburningbymetaphoricalextension.Somelike89and10mayrequiremoreimaginationthanothers.1Beingatahightemperature;beingatorexhibitingatemperaturethatishigherthannormalordesirable.2Causingaburningsensationasinthemouth;spicy.3Markedbyintensityofemotion;ardentorfiery.4Violent;raging.5Closetoasuccessfulsolutionorconclusion.6inbaseballdifficulttocatch.7Chargedorenergizedwithelectricity.8Arousingintenseinterestexcitementorcontroversy.9Recentlystolen.10Verygoodorimpressive.
7.Metonymyischaracterizedbytheuseofonewordorphrasebeingsubstitutedforanotherwithwhichitiscloselyassociatedwhichissometimestermedarepresentationalmetaphor.e.g.“Washington”usedfor“theUnitedStates’government”;“thesword”for“militarypower”;“olivebranch”for“peace”aheadlinegoeslikethis:Arafat:aguninonehandandanolivebranchintheother;“JackLondon”forhisworks.CanyousupplymoreexamplesinbothEnglishandChinese投笔从戎;不爱红装爱武装;一帆风顺;贪杯;donkey/elephant;dove/eagle;heart-head/brain;thepress-thebar;Imetacoupleofnewfacesyesterday.
8.WhichofthefollowingexamplesarebestdescribedaspolysemyorasmetonymyaComputerchipsareanimportantnewtechnology.[polysemy]bThebookstorehassomenewtitlesinlinguistics.[metonymy]cIhadtoparkontheshoulderoftheroad.[metaphor]dThepenismightierthanthesword.[metonymy]
9.ThefollowingexcerptistakenfromShakespeare’sTheTwoGentlemenofVeronaIV.ii..Analyzetheitalicizedpartintermsofsemanticcategorization.Personalificationisusedhere.“Night”iscomparedtoa“queen”.
10.Identifythesemanticrolesofallthenounphrasesinthissentence:hisnewgolfclub[Instrument]Fred[Agent]thebal[Theme]thewoods[Source]thegrassyareaneartheriver[Goal]Unit8TheUseofEnglishI[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Inpragmaticscontextreferstothesentencesprecedingandfollowingthecurrentwordorsentence.FNote:Inpragmatics“context”mayrefertoanythingthatbearsontheproductionorcomprehensionofthecurrentutterance.
2.Notallsentencesweproducearemeanttodothings.FNote:Inastrictsenseallsentencesweproducearemeanttodosomething.
3.Aperlocutionaryactisperformedbythehearer.FNote:Aperlocutionaryactcanalsobedonebythespeakerasinthecaseofapromise.
4.“I”“now”“here”and“yesterday”arealldeicticexpressions.T
5.“JohncookedJaneacake”presupposes“JohncookedsomethingforJane”.FNote:“JohncookedJaneacake”entails“JohncookedsomethingforJane”■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1WhatistheintendedmeaningineachcaseOneistogiveinformationaboutwherediaperscanbechangedforinfants;theotheristocallonpeopletovoteagainstBush.2WheredoyouexpecttofindthemOneisoftenfoundinpublictoiletsandtheotherwasusedbeforeU.S.presidentialelectioninwhichBushwasacandidate.3Dothenon-linguisticillustrationshelpyouunderstandthelanguageusedYes.
2.ASK:1WhataspectsofcontexthavetobeconsideredinordertointerpretsuchexpressionsaNoticeonofficedoor:Backinonehour.Toknowwhentheowneroftheofficewillbebackonehastoknowwhenheorshelefttheoffice.bTelephoneansweringmachine:I’mnotherenow.“I”referstotheownerofthetelephone.“here”referstotheofficeorhomewherethetelephoneisinstalled.“now”referstoanytimewhenthecallcomesin.cWatchingahorserace:OhnoI’minlastplace.“I”referstosomeonewhoplacesabetonthehorsethatisnowinthelastplace.dOnamap/directory:YOUAREHERE.Sometravelerreadingamap/directory“You”referstosomeonewhoisreadingthemap/directory.eInacarthatwon’tstart:MaybeI’moutofgas.Acarbreakingdown“I”referstothecarinquestion.2ArethereanyproblemswithunderstandingtheutterancesThedeicticexpressionsarenotusedintheirusualways.3Howaredeicticexpressions“strategically”usedbelow1本饮料自购买之日起三个月内可饮用Thedayofpurchasecanbeanyday.2大甩卖最后三天Themanufacturershouldhavedatedthetimeofproduction.“最后三天”isindeterminatewithoutknowingthedatefromwhichonecountsthelastthreedays.
3.ASK:1Canyougiveanexampleforeachofthecasestodemonstratethevariedusagesof“we”a.Wemustfinishourbreakfastbefore8a.m.b.Canwestopchattinginclassyourguysc.Let’sgivethespeakerawarmapplause.d.Inthispaperwearegoingtoexplore……2DoestheChinese“我们”sharethedeicticpropertiesof“we”Yes.3Discusstheuseof“me”inthefollowingpictures.“Me”referstothecardinthefirstpictureandthecarinthesecond.Inbothcasesitisusedfortheeffectofpersonalification.
4.ASK:1Whatarethecharacteristicsof“you”ineachcase--gestural:Youyoubutnotyouaredismissed.pointingafingeratoneafteranotherNeedtouseapointingfinger.--symbolic:DoyouhaveanyquestionssaidbyateacherinclassTheteacherdoesnotfocusonanyofthestudents.--anaphoric:JanedoyouknowJohncomesfromBritainNeedanantecedent.--substantial:Youcannevertellwhatsextheyarenowadays.Conventionalizedasin“Youcannevertell…”2DoesChinese“你”havesimilarusagesYes.3Useexamplestoillustratethevariedusagesof“this”“that”“left”“there”and“here”.Thereyougoagain.Therewego.Ididthisandthat.
5.ASK:1DothefollowingcountaspromisesIfnotwhyaIpromiseI’llfailyouintheexam.Nobecausefailingsomeoneisnottothebenefitoftheaddressee.bIpromisethatnextFridaywillbehisbirthday.NobecausenextFridaywillcomeregardlessofthepromise.cIpromisethatIsawhimyesterday.No.Itisnotaboutsomefutureaction.dIpromisethatyou’llhelpmeoutoftrouble.No.Itisnottheaddresseewhobenefits.eJohnpromisesthathe’llhelpJane.No.Theonewhopromisesisnotthecurrentspeaker.fIpromisedthatIwouldhelphim.No.Theactofpromisinghereisnotacurrentone.2WhatarethespecificfelicityconditionsforthankingandadvisingThanking:Propositionalcontentcondition:Thethankerhassaidsomethingthatshowshisorhergratitude.Preparatorycondition:Theaddresseehasdonesomethingtothethanker’sbenefit.Sinceritycondition:Thethankerreallyintendstoshowhisorhergratitude.Essentialcondition:Theactofsayingthewordswillcountasatokenofthankstotheeffectthattheaddresseefeelsthegratitudeshowntohimorher.Advising:Propositionalcontentcondition:Theadviserhassaidsomethingthatwilldogoodtotheaddresseeinrelationtothelatter’scurrentneed;Preparatorycondition:Theaddresseefacessometroubleordifficultythatheorshecannotmanage;theadviserhasthecapacitytogivehelp;Sinceritycondition:Theadviserhastheintentiontohelptheaddresseeout;Essentialcondition:Whattheadvisersayswillleadtheaddresseetosolvethetroubleordifficultyinquestion.3DothefollowingcountasthankingactsinthestrictsenseNo.Becausetheexpectedactshavenotbeendone.
6.ASK:1Howaretheexpressionsdifferentinrealizingtherequestareferstothehearer’sability;bimplicitlyreferstothehearer’swants;cprojectsonahypotheticalperspectiveonthehearer’saction;ddropsabroadhint.2WhyarepeopleindirectincommunicationMeanwhiletakethefollowingintoconsideration:Performingindirectspeechactscangetridofthenegativeaspectsbroughtupbytheliteralinterpretation.Indirectspeechisakindofpolitenessstrategiesspeakersmayadoptincommunicating.Itisquiteessentialtosoothetheinteraction.Butindirectnessisriskyandcostly.3AretheChineseequallyindirectwhenperformingrequestsHowaboutyouOmit.
7.ASK:1Forawecanalsosay“Ithankyou”.Whatwouldbethedifference“Ithankyou”ismoreformalandseriousthan“thankyou”.2Wecansay“Sorry”inEnglishasawayofapologizingbutwedon’tsay“Apologize”forthesamepurpose.Whatmightbeyourexplanationforthisdifference“Sorry”isanellipticalwayofsaying“I’msorry.”Wedonotuseasingleverblike“apologize”asacompleteutteranceunlessitisconventionalized.3Forbwecanalsosay“Iseeyourpointnow”.WhatwouldbethedifferenceAlsoconsidertheuseof“now”inthefollowingpictures.It’smoreemphatic.4ForcwecanalsosayI’mtellingyouthatheisdishonest”andfordwemighthavesaid“I’maskingyouifyouwillgoornot.”WhatwouldbethedifferenceBothcasesinvolveemphasis.
8.ASK:1/2WhatisthepresupposedinformationineachoftheadsWhatisthelinguisticdevicethatmakesthepresuppositioninferableSomesupermarketssellformuch.thecomparativedegreeTheaddresseehasawife.definitedescriptionSomepeoplethinklayoversarebad.negationTheaddresseewilltakeanothervacation.definitedescription3/4WhatisthepresupposedinformationineachoftheheadlinesWhatisthelinguisticdevicethatmakesthepresuppositioninferablea.Therewerebattlesoversame-sexmarriage.renew:change-of-stateverbb.ThereusedtobesomekindofscrutinyforeveryspeckontheShuttle.[new:change-of-stateadjective]c.FedererhaswonthreeWimbledontitles.[fourth:ordinalterm]d.ThereisaplacecalledBaghdad.[Baghdad:definitedescription]e.SeoulandTokyousedtobeoncloseterms.[divide:change-of-stateverb]f.TherewasaplanecrashinRussia.[Russianplanecrash:definitedescription]4CanyouthinkofsomeotherpresuppositiontriggersVariousclauses.E.g.Theboyswhowantedtoplayfootballweredisappointedwhenitrained.Thissentencecontainstwocasesofpresupposition:a.Theboywantedtoplayfootball.b.Itrained.5Presuppositionmayalsobetakenadvantageofbyjudgesatcourt.Herearesomequestionstheymightraise.WhatpresuppositionsmighthavebeenobjectedtoineachcaseaHowdidyouknowthatthedefendanthadboughtaknifeThedefendanthadboughtaknife.bHowlonghaveyoubeensellingcocaineTheaddresseehasbeensellingcocaine.cDidyouseethemurderedwomanbeforeshelefttheofficeThemurderedwomanlefttheoffice.dHowfarwasthecargoingwhenthedriverrantheredlightThedriverrantheredlight.aWhydidyouleavethesceneofthecrimeTheaddresseeleftthesceneofthecrime.
9.ASK:1CanyougivetwoexamplesinvolvingthepresenceofpresuppositiontriggeredbyeachtypeOmit.2CanyoufindsometypesofadverbsinEnglishthatservetotriggerpresuppositionsrepetitiveadverb:againreverseadverbs:back
10.ASK:1Inthelastexamplethepresupposedinformationhasbeencanceledforsomenon-linguisticreason.WhatisthereasonOnecannotdoanythingonceheisdead.2CanyougivemoreexamplesinwhichpresuppositionmaybesuspendedOmit.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.Supposesomeonesaidthatagrammarmustdescribewhataspeakermeansinutteringanexpressionfromthelanguageandthatitmustdothisforeverymeaningfulexpression.Whatproblemsaretherewiththisproposala.Wecannotexhaustallpossiblesentencesinalanguage.b.Theremaybemismatchesbetweenwhatissaidandwhatismeant.
2.Whatkindofcontextisrequiredfortheinterpretationofeachtextabovea.Inacasinooralotterystationb.Inanairport.c.InHollywoodCelebritiesdistinguishthemselvesbytheirhandprints.Ordinarypeopleorvisitorsliketomodelthemselvesonthesepeople.d.Inanelectronicappliancesshop.“Agreatdeal”isambiguous.
3.HowarethedeicticexpressionsinthefollowingutterancesprojectedforspecialeffectsaBosstoclerkWecomplimentedourselvestoosoonJohn.Here“we”refersonlytoJohn.bDoctortopatientHowarewefeelingtodayHere“we”refersonlytothepatient.cMumtoDadWe’reinabadmoodtoday.Here“we”refersonlytothebaby.CanyouaddmoreexamplesofasimilarkindeitherfromEnglishorChineseOmit.
4.Whatisthedefaultdeicticcenterof“come”and“go”Howcanthey“come”inparticularbeusedforsomespecialeffectsatthecostofthedeicticcenterDoesChinese“来”behaveinasimilarwayto“come”ArethereotherverbsinEnglishthatcontaindeicticinformationThe“defaultdeicticcenteristhespeaker.Take3forexample.Ittreatstheaddresseeasthedeicticcenter.Generally“go”isusedinthiscase.Chinese“来”doesnotbehaveinanexactlysimilarwayto“come”.InEnglishverbslike“bring”and“take”alsoencodedeicticinformation.
5.Supposeitis26JulyMondaytoday.WhenwewanttomentionJuly27Tuesdaywenormallywillsay“tomorrow”insteadof“onJuly27”or“onTuesday”.Thisiswhatwecallthepre-emtiveusageofdeicticexpressions.HowdoyouexplainitIsthisalsotrueinChineseCalendrictimeisabsolutetimewhereasdeictictimeisrelativetime.ItseemstrueinChineseatleast.
6.Allofthefollowingexpressionshavedeicticelementsinthem.WhataspectsofcontexthavetobeconsideredinordertointerpretsuchexpressionsPerhapsthereareothersofasimilartypethatyoucouldaddtothislist.a.NBAslogan:Ilovethisgame!Although“thisgame”isdeicticitrefersonlytoNBA.Although“I”canbeanybodyitrefersonlytosomeNBAfan.b.McDonald’sslogan:I’mlovingit.“I”referstoanyonewhopatronizesMcDonald.Thepresentprogressiveaspectisalsodeicticisthatitpointstoanypointoftimeinprogress.c.AdvertisementforNikesportsshoes:Justdoit.Thesimpletenseisdeicticsignalingthepresenttimefor“doingit”.“It”isnotdeicticbutanaphoricalthoughitsantecedentisabsent.d.Answeringatelephone:Ohit’syou.Here“you”canbeanyonewhocallsin.e.Pointingtoanemptychair:Whereisshetoday“today”canbeanydaywhentheutteranceismade.“She”isnotdeicticbutanaphoricalthoughitsantecedentisabsent.
7.Writersdonotassumetheirreadershaveblankminds.Rathertheydependonthereaders’backgroundknowledgetodeveloptheirideasandinteractwiththem.Onewayofdoingsoistheuseofpresupposition.ThefollowingexcerptistheopeningofEmilyBrontë’sWutheringHeights.Readitcarefullyanddetectthepresupposedinformationasmuchasyoucan.a.Ivisitedmylandlord.b.Ihavealandlord.c.IliveinEngland.d.Ihavefixedonasituationcompletelyremovedfromthestirofsociety.e.ThereisdesolationbetweenMr.Heathcliffandme.f.Myheartwarmedtowardshim.g.Ibeheldhisblackeyeswithdrawsosuspiciouslyundertheirbrows.h.Irodeup.i.Hisfingersshelteredthemselves.j.Iannouncedmyname.k.Mr.Heathcliffmadeanod.Someinformationisconveyedasbackgroundinformationbymeansofpresuppositiontrigger.
8.Discussthefollowingutterancesintermsoflocutionaryactillocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.a.Locutionary:representativestatingthattheseafoodisfreshIllocutionary:directiveinvitingpatronageb.Locutionary:representativestatingthatthe“intel”processorcanworkallthetimeIllocutionary:directiveurgingcustomerstobuytheproductc.Locutionary:representativeinformingthatonlyticketpassengerscantakethecoachIllocutionary:directivecommandingthepassengerstoshowtheirticketsd.Locutionary:representativeinformingthatthewallisforrentIllocutionary:directiveinvitingadsTheperlocutionaryactforalloftheabovehastobedecidedbyreferencetotheactualeffectproducedbytheutterances.
9.Comparethefollowingutterances.HowaretheydifferentpragmaticallyspeakingaIfIwereyouIdleavetheroom.politeadvicebIfyouknowwhatsgoodforyouyoullleavetheroom.lesspoliteadvicecIdbetternotseeyouinthisroomthenexttimeIturnaround.impoliteadviceUnit9TheUseofEnglishII[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Maximofquantityrequiresonetoprovideasmuchinformationaspossible.F
2.Inordertobepoliteoneneedstocooperateinallpossibleways.F
3.Everynormalspeakerneedstomindhisownandothers’face.T
4.Politenessisamatterofdegree.T
5.Culturesvaryasfaraspolitenessissuesareconcerned.T■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1Howwouldyouinterpret“and”ineachofthecasesIna“and”isapureconjunctionthatcoordinatestwoparts.Inb“and”signalscause-effectrelation.Inc“and”indicatesthesequenceofeventsmeaning“andthen”.2Doyouvotefortheargumentthat“and”ispolysemousortheargumentthat“and”hasjustonebasicmeaningandtheother“meanings”areimplicaturesderivedfromthecontext“and”hasonebasicmeaning.Otherinterpretationsarederivedfromthisbasicmeaningpluscontextualinformationbywayofimplicature.3Itseemsthat“or”hastwoconflictingmeanings.WhataretheyDoyouthinkonemeaningisbasicandtheotherisderivableincontextbyvirtueofimplicatureTheyareexclusive“or”andinclusive“or”.Theinclusive“or”ismorebasic.Theexclusive“or”isrealizedbywayofimplicature.
2.ASK:1WhatdoesJohnwanttosayinactualityThestepmotherisnogood.2WhydoesJohnanswerthatwayyousupposeHedoesnotwanttosaydirectlythathisstepmotherisbad.3WhatdoesJohnimplyinthesecondpartofhisreplyHedidnotmeantobelate.4WhydoesJohngivethatadditionalinformationHewantstoexplainwhyhewaslatesothatJanewouldpardonhimifsheminded.5WhatistheextrainformationineachofthecasesInthefirstpicturetheadditionalinformationisthat“thereisicefalling”.Inthesecondpicturetheadditionalinformationis“Heartdiseaseisthe#1killerofAfricanAmericans”.Inthethirdpicturetheadditionalinformationis“水是生命的源泉”6WhatistheeffectifanyofprovidingtheadditionalinformationItmakesdirectivesmorepersuasive.
3.ASK:1WhatimplicaturedoesJanewanttocommunicatetoJohnSheisnotcomingwithJohntomorrow.2WhatstepsdoesoneneedtotakebeforearrivingattheimplicatureStep1:TounderstandthatJohnhasmadeaninvitation.Step2:TounderstandthatJanehassaidsomethingapparentlyirrelevanttoinvitation.Step3:ToassumethatJaneisbeingco-operativewhensayingthat.Step4:Toassumethatonedeartosomeoneneedshisorhercarewhenoneissick.Lookingafterasickpersonpreventsonefromdoingotherthingsthattakeplaceatthesametime.Step5:TounderstandthatJane’sreplycanserveasanexplanationforrejectingtheinvitation.Step6:TounderstandthatJaneisactuallyrejectingJohn’sinvitation.3ArethereanystepsonehastotakeforgrantedYes.LikeSteps3and
4.
4.ASK:1WhatimplicaturescanJanecommunicatetoJohnBoysaregenerallynaughtyandthereforeJohnmightaswellforgiveTom.2Canyoufindothercontextsinwhich“Boyswillbeboys”maybeheardbutusedfordifferentmeaningsJohn:tomsaidhisfatherkissedhismother.Jane:Boyswillbeboys.3HowwouldyoumakesenseoftheannouncementsForthefirstpicturetheintendedmeaningisthatonehastobuyticketsforentry.Forthesecondpicturetheintendedmeaningistoinvitepatronage.
5.ASK:1WhichofthetwocasesaboveinvolvesthecalculationofaparticularizedimplicatureWhyThesecondcasedoesbecauseJane’sresponseconcernsspecialcontextualinformation.2Whensomeonesays“Janelikessomeofthepictures”animplicaturecanbederived:“Janedoesnotlikeallofthepictures.”IssuchimplicatureoftentermedasscalarimplicaturegeneralizedorparticularizedimplicatureWhyItisgeneralizedimplicaturebecausenospecialcontexthastobeevoked.
6.ASK:1DidJohncuthisownfingerorthatofsomebodyelseWhyHecuthisown.Otherwisethespeakerwouldsaywhosefingerhecut.2DidJanegointoherownhouseorthatofsomebodyelseWhyJanewentintosomebodyelse’shouse.Otherwisethespeakerwouldsayshewentintoherhouse.Butthingswouldbedifferentifthespeakerdidnotknowwhomthehousebelongedto.3WasthewomanJohndinedwithhiswifeSameasb.4Doyoufindtheuseof“but”inthelastexampleinterestingYesbecauseitimpliesthatallChineseareexpectedtoplaytabletennis.
7.ASK:1WhatfactorgivesrisetothedifferenceinthewaytherequestsaboveareperformedSocialdistancebetweenthespeakerandtheclearer.2WhatotherfactorsmightinfluencehowoneperformsarequestUseexamplestoillustrate.Thesizeofimpositionrequestsomeonetolendacarorapenpowerrelationsasuperiortoasubordinatevs.theoppositeetc.
8.ASK:1HowisthewayofinformingshowninthepicturedifferentfromtheusualwayItimpliesakindofinteractionwithpotentialpatrons.2Whyis“yes”usednowthatonemightalsouse“WE’REOPEN”HowdoesthisbearontheinteractivenatureofpublicsignsoradvertisinglanguageTheadvertisertriestoengagecustomersbyseeminglytalkingtothem.Thissuggeststhatpublicsignsandadvertisinglanguageachievetheireffectswellbydesigninginteractionwiththeirtargets.
9.ASK:1Whatmaximisbeingalludedtoineachcasea.maximofrelationb.maximofmannerc.maximofrelationd.maximofquantitye.maximofqualityf.maximofmanner2DoesthehedgingeffortsuggesttheplausibilityoftheCooperativePrincipleYes.Itindicatesthatlanguageusersaresometimesconsciousoftherelatedrequirementsforcommunication.
10.ASK:1WhichaspectofpragmaticcompetenceisbeingcalledintoquestionherePoliteness.2DoparentsoftengiveexplicitpragmaticinstructiontotheirchildrenwhilethelatteraregrowingupDoyouthinksuchinstructionishelpfulornotEffectiveornotYesbutsometimestheeffectisslow.3ArethereanyotheraspectsofpragmaticcompetencelikelytobereinforcedbyadultsConsiderthefollowingfragmentofconversation:a.Presuppositionofcommongroundasinthebasisofusingdefinitereferringexpressions.b.Understandingofindirectspeechacts.
11.ASK:1WhatpragmaticinformationisspecifictoEnglishlanguageandcultureTheuseof“thedevil”foremphasisafterinterrogativepronouns;theuseofthesubjunctivemoodlike“might”forpoliteness;theuseof“thankyou”amongclosefriends;theuseofthesubjunctivemoodtoconveysomeinformationimplicitlyetc.2HowwouldyourenderthebitsofpragmaticinformationintoChineseOmit.
12.ASK:1WhatcommunicativeconsequencesdoshiftsintermsofaddressbringforthSuchshiftshaveimportantconsequences.Forinstancetheygenerallyredefinewhattopicsmayberaisedforconversationbetweenthetwopeopleorwhatpersonalinformationtheyarepreparedtoshare.2ArethereanybasicdifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishwithregardtotheuseoftermsofaddressYes.InChinesethetermsofaddressareamajormeansofshowingpoliteness.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.DoyouagreewithwhatJerrySeinfeldsaysHowissuchremarkrelatedtothedoingofFTAsOmit.
2.Lexicalpragmaticsdealspartlywithhowalexicalitemgetsinterpretedbysemanticnarrowingwideningandthelikeinaccordancewithsomepragmaticprinciples.Thedefaultpictureisthatsecretariesaregenerallyfemale.“Havingadrink”isnotworthmentioningunlessthedrinkisalcoholicsincenotallpeopledrinkalcohol.Whenwewishsomebodyluckwewishthemgoodluck.Whenweasksomebodytobeamanweencouragethemtobeagreatman.
3.ThefollowingfragmentsofconversationarecitedfromOscarWilde’sTheImportanceofBeingEarnest.Whatmaximsmayhavebeendeliberatelyfloutedbythecharactersineachfragment1Maximofrelation.2Maximofmanner.becauseofrepetitionused3Maximofrelation;maximofquantity.4Maximofquantity.5Maximofrelation.6Maximofquantity.
4.Partofone’spragmaticcompetenceliesintheabilitytoperformface-threateningactslikerequestingandrefusingrhetoricallybyperformingeitherface-enhancingactsorface-savingacts.Listatleastfivestrategiesforeachofthem.Omit.
5.Inthesentence“Johnunpackedthepicnic.Thebeerwaswarm.”weunderstand“thebeer”aspartof“thepicnic”.ArewejustifiedindoingsuchbridgingWhyYesbecausethebeerisoftenassociatedwithapicnic.
6.Inthesentence“JohnandJaneboughtapiano”weunderstandthatJohnandJaneboughtapianotogethernotoneeachfollowingaso-calledmirrormaxim.WhyisthatsoCanyouexplainitintermsoftheCooperativePrincipleHowaboutthesentence“JohnandJaneboughtanairticketandleftBeijing”DotheybuyittogetherWhynotIfJohnandJaneeachhadboughtapianothespeakerwouldhavemadeitclear.Accordingtomaximofmanneroneneedstobebriefwhenpossible.Notnecessarilyso.Inadditioneachofthemboughtoneticketsinceoneticketisgoodforonlyonepersonasfarastravelingbyairisconcerned.
7.Inthesentence“Johncamein.Thenhesatdown”“he”hasthepreferredco-referencewith“John”.CanyouexplainitintermsoftheCooperativePrincipleCanyouthinkofacontextinwhich“he”referstosomebodyelseAccordingtomaximofmanneroneneedstobeeconomical.Theuseof“he”ismoreeconomicofeffortthanrepeating“John”.Weneedabroadercontextinvolvinganothermalewhohasbeenthefocusofattention.
8.ItiscustomaryfornativespeakersofEnglishtorelyontheirownpragmaticconventionsevenwhentheyareengagedinaconversationwithanon-nativespeaker.Lookatthefollowingepisode:Thefirstoneismoreindirectthanthesecondone.Yes.RequestsinEnglisharegenerallymoreindirectthaninChinese.
9.SupposeyouwereLiMininthefollowingdialogue.YoubroughtyourwifeGaoYunalongtoattendafamilypartyhostedbyyourAmericanfriendJack.No.InChinesewearenotsupposedtocomplimentontheappearancesofothers’wife.Alsowedonotuse“Ilikeyour….”Insteadwewillsay“Yournecktieissonice.”WhenrespondinginEnglishwemaysimplysay“Thankyou”or“I’mgladtohearthat.”
10.AnalyzethefollowingextractfromOscarWilde’sTheImportanceofBeingEarnestintermsofthePolitenessPrinciple.WhichmaximisatissueMaximofagreement.
11.ReadthefollowingexcerptfromChapterXIXofJaneAustin’sPrideandPrejudice.HowispolitenessorimpolitenessreflectedbythewaythecharacterstalkYoumayjustfocusonthepartsinboldface.“MayIhopeMadamforyourinterestwithyourfairdaughterElizabethwhenIsolicitforthehonorofaprivateaudiencewithherinthecourseofthismorning”a.askforpermission“mayI…b.givepraisetosomeonedeartotheaddressee“fairdaughter”c.showdeference“solicitthehonorof…”“DearMa’amdonotgo.--Ibegyouwillnotgo.--Mr.Collinsmustexcuseme.--Hecanhavenothingtosaytomethatanybodyneednothear.Iamgoingawaymyself.”a.useendearment“dearMa’am”b.showself-defacement“Ibeg” “NonononsenseLizzy.--Idesireyouwillstaywhereyouare.”--AnduponElizabeth’sseemingreallywithvexedandembarrassedlooksabouttoescapesheadded“LizzyIinsistuponyourstayingandhearingMr.Collins.”a.showdisagreement“nono”b.usenegativeevaluation“nonsense”c.imposepersonaldesire“Idesire”“Iinsist”“BelievememydearMissElizabeththatyourmodestysofarfromdoingyouanydisserviceratheraddstoyourotherperfections.Youwouldhavebeenlessamiableinmyeyeshadtherenotbeenthislittleunwillingness;butallowmetoassureyouthatIhaveyourrespectedmother’spermissionforthisaddress.Youcanhardlydoubtthepurportofmydiscoursehoweveryournaturaldelicacymayleadyoutodissemble;myattentionshavebeentoomarkedtobemistaken.AlmostassoonasIenteredthehouseIsingledyououtasthecompanionofmyfuturelife.ButbeforeIamrunawaywithbymyfeelingsonthissubjectperhapsitwillbeadvisableformetostatemyreasonsformarrying--andmoreoverforcomingintoHertfordshirewiththedesignofselectingawifeasIcertainlydid.a.useendearment“mydear”b.givepraise“yourmodesty”c.usefavorablecomments“addstoyourotherperfection”etc.d.showdeferencetosomeonedeartoone“yourrespectedmother” “YouaretoohastySir”shecried.“YouforgetthatIhavemadenoanswer.Letmedoitwithoutfartherlossoftime.AcceptmythanksforthecomplimentyouarepayingmeIamverysensibleofthehonourofyourproposalsbutitisimpossibleformetodootherwisethandeclinethem.”a.Criticism“Youaretoohasty”b.Correction“Youforget…”c.Refusal“itisimpossibleformetodootherwisethandeclinethem”
12.WhichtypeofpolitenessareyoumostfamiliarwithHaveyouencounteredtheothersonanyoccasionWhatkindoflanguagedoyouthinkcharacterizeseachOmit.Unit10TheVarietyofEnglishI[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Alanguageoftenhassomedialects.T
2.LondonCockneyisveryprestigiousinBritain.FNote:RPReceivedPronunciationisveryprestigious.
3.Differentsocialclassesoftenhavetheirowndialects.TNote:Theyhavewhatwecallsocialdialectsorsociolects.
4.SpokenEnglishisinformalinstyle.FNote:SpokenEnglishcanbeveryformalonsomeoccasionsinvolvingpreparedspeech.■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1DoyouspeakanylocaldialectsDemonstratealittlebit.Omit.2HowdiddialectscomeintoexistencePeoplespeakingthesamelanguagearelongseparatedandthenvariationsoccur.3WhatdoyouthinkaboutthefutureofdialectsShouldwetakemeasurestoprotectourdialectsOmit.
2.ASK:1CanyouidentifyanylinguisticdifferencebetweenElizabethanandcurrentModernEnglishe.g.inline3thouisnowyou.Thedifferencesareunderlinedbelow:HAMLET:Amanmayfishwiththewormthathatheatofakingandeatofthefishthathathfedofthatworm.KING:WhatdostthoumeanbythisHAMLET:Nothingbuttoshowyouhowakingmaygoaprogressthroughthegutsofabeggar.KING:WhereisPoloniusHAMLET:Inheaven.Sendthithertosee.Ifyourmessengerfindhimnotthereseekhimintheotherplaceyourself.Butindeedifyoufindhimnotwithinthismonthyoushallnosehimasyougoupthestairsintothelobby.2SinceShakespeare1564-1616doyouthinktheEnglishgrammarhaschangedprofoundlyJustifyyourjudgmentwithevidencefromtheaboveexcerpt.Notmuch.Thebasicpatternsarethesame.Anoticeabledifferenceliesinthepositionof“not”asin“Ifyourmessengerfindhimnotthere”.3HowdoesmodernEnglishdifferfromOldEnglishandMiddleEnglishYoumayrefertoGeorgeYuleTheStudyofEnglishpp.218-
2233.ASK:1WhatstyleoridiolectdoyouthinkcharacterizesMarkTwainJustifyyourselfwithevidencefromthetext.a.useofvernacularb.humorc.intimacywiththereadersd.colloquialism2WhatstyledoyouthinkcharacterizesHenryJamesJustifyyourselfwithevidencefromthetext.a.highformalityb.useoflongandinvolvedsentencesc.seriousd.useofpompouslanguage
4.ASK:1HowwouldyouexpresseachoftheconversationalfragmentsinformalEnglishDotheseinformalsentencesexpressanyfeelingorideathatisnotexpressedintheformalstylea.WhatdidyousayYousaidIworryb.WhatdidyousayYousaidJohngotajobc.Didyousaymybossgavemearaised.Didyousayheworeatuxedo2HowisthelanguageofadministrativeregulationsdifferentfromtheconversationalfragmentsTheinformalstylecanbecharacterizedashavingagreatamountofabbreviationshorteningcontractionanddeletion.Bycontrasttheregulationsuselongcompleteandcomplexsentences.Bigwordsarefrequentlyused.3Lookatthefollowingpicture.WhichstyledoesthelanguageusedbelongtoformalorinformalWhyItisinformalassignaledbythemixeduseofregularlanguageandanemailsymbol.
5.ASK:1HowdoesMrs.Bennet’sspeechreflectthegeneralcharacteristicsofwomen’slanguageIllustratewithexamples.a.Useintensifiersandexaggerationsb.Useemphatictoneslikestressing“me”“that”and“his”c.Useformallanguage2WhatotherfeaturesmaycharacterizefemininediscourseWomenlovetouseexaggerationsasshownbywidedistributionofintensifierslike“awfully”and“terribly”.Womenlovetouseendearmentlanguage.Theylovetoexpressstrongwishes.Theylovetouseemphasisofvariouskinds.
7.ASK:1HowwouldyoudescribepublicsignsasauniquegenreHighlyelliptical;mostlyrepresentativesdirectivesandcommissiveslikeinformingcommandingwarningprohibitingetc.2AretherefeaturesofsignsthatarenotcapturedbythesepicturesOmit.
8.ASK:1Whatstylisticfeaturescanyouassociatewiththecyberlanguageasshownherea.Useinitials;b.Blendnumericalswithletters;c.Usecapitals.2CanyougiveafewsamplesofChinesecyberlanguageOmit.
9.ASK:1Howwouldyoucharacterizethegenreoffablesasasub-genreofnarrativea.Narratethings;b.Tellstoriesaboutanimalsbirdsetc.c.Carryamessage.2Howisthisgenredifferentfromachildren’sstoryThelatterisentertainingbutmaynotconveyanexplicitmessage.
10.ASK:1HowisregisterdifferentfromgenreWithinHalliday’sframeworkregisterisdefinedintermsoffunctionalcategories.Traditionallygenreisdefinedintermsofformalcategories.WithinHalliday’sframeworkgenreisdefinedintermsoftextualproperties.2HowwouldyoudefinetheregisterofajobintervieworacourtinterrogationForajobinterview:Fieldofdiscourse:jobapplicationTenorofdiscourse:applicant-employerformalpoliteModeofdiscourse:oralpartlypreparedandpartlyspontaneousForacourtinterrogation:Fieldofdiscourse:alawsuitTenorofdiscourse:judgeplusajury-suspectsformalantagonisticModeofdiscourse:oralpartlypreparedandpartlyspontaneous
11.ASK:1WhydolanguageusersinventeuphemismsToSoundmorepleasantormorepolite.Sometimesforfun.2WhatothercommoneuphemismscanyoucomeupwithOmit.3DuringtheVietnamWaroccasionallythephrase“surgicalstrike”wasemployedinplaceof“bombing.”Whatareothereuphemismsassociatedwithwar“militaryintervention”for“invasion”4Insteadof“firstclass”“secondclass”and“thirdclass”accommodationsairlinesnowhave“firstclass”“touristcoach”and“economy.”WhatarethereasonsforthesechangesinlabelsTosoundrespectfulfornon-first-classpassengers.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.HowwillyoudistinguishbetweenlanguageanddialectAlanguageusu.hasitswritingsystem;itmayincludeseveraldialects;itisoftenpoliticallydefined.2-
6.Omit.
7.Whatlinguisticfeaturescharacterizethisfragmentoffootballcommentarya.useofshortsentences;b.useofellipticalsentences;c.dominantuseofthesimplepresenttense.
8.Studythefollowingpictures.Discusstheirdifferencesintermsofgenrefeatures.a.speciallayout;neutralandformal.b.conventionallayout;moresubjective.
9.Omit.Unit11TheVarietiesofEnglishII[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.African-AmericanVernacularEnglishisaninferiordialectofEnglish.F
2.PidginEnglishnolongerexiststoday.F
3.Somepeoplespeakacreoleastheirmothertongue.T
4.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishareidenticalingrammarbutdifferentinvocabulary.F■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1WhatphoneticfeaturescanyouspotastypicalofAAVEratherthanSE“o”for“of”“mebbe”for“maybe”“sung”for“sang”“em”for“them”“wanter”for“wantto”“de”for“the”“dat”for“that”“agin”for“against”“boun”for“bound”2WhatgrammaticalfeaturesmayappearunusualtoyouIsitsystematicallydistributed“We’s“for“We’re”“Ihopes”for“Ihope”“Wewants”for“wewant”Yes.Theyaresystematicallydistributed.
2.ASK:1CanwefindsuchpidginEnglishinChinaCanyouprovideacoupleofexamplesOmit.2WhatlinguisticfeaturescanbesaidtobetypicalofsuchpidginEnglishLossofinflection;shortsentences;notmuchgrammar;etc.
3.ASK:1CanyoulistacoupleoffeaturestypicalofHawai’iCreoleEnglishUnusualwaysofusingpronouns;nouseofmorphemeforplurality;doubleformforthecomparativedegree;thereplacementof“no”for“not”etc.2InwhatwaysisthecreolerecognizableasregularlypatternedConsistentuseofsingularformforpluralconceptslike“dog”“daughter”andthatof“no”for“not”inmodifyingpredicateslike“nolikeplay”and“nocango”.
4.ASK:Omit.
5.ASK:1Canyougiveanexampleofcode-switchingOmit.2Underwhatcircumstancesdopeoplecode-switchWhentheycometosensitivetopicsorwhentheywanttokeepsomeoneoutsideorwhentheywanttoestablishcamaraderiewithsomeonecapableofspeakingthesamedialectorlanguage.3Inabroadsensecode-switchingalsoincludestheshiftfromonedialecttoanotherandthatfromadialecttoastandardvariety.DoweswitchforthesamereasononsuchoccasionaswedofromonelanguagetoanotherOmit.
6.ASK:1WhatkindoflanguagecanbealinguafrancaAlanguagewhosespeakershaveeconomicdominance;alanguagethathasthewidestdistributionofspeakers;etc.2HowdoesMandarinChinesedifferfromEnglishasalinguafrancaPutonghuawasdevelopedbythegovernment.Englisharosefromcolonizationandeconomicglobalizationatleastinitsinternationalrole.Task3:StudyQuestions
1.ThefollowingisanExcerpt1fromChapter2ofMarkTwain’sTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.UnderlineanypartthatcharacterizesAfrican-AmericanVernacularEnglish.WEwenttiptoeingalongapathamongstthetreesbacktowardstheendofthewidow’sgardenstoopingdownsoasthebrancheswouldn’tscrapeourheads.WhenwewaspassingbythekitchenIfelloverarootandmadeanoise.Wescroucheddownandlaidstill.MissWatson’sbigniggernamedJimwassettinginthekitchendoor;wecouldseehimprettyclearbecausetherewasalightbehindhim.Hegotupandstretchedhisneckoutaboutaminutelistening.Thenhesays:“Whodah”Helistenedsomemore;thenhecometiptoeingdownandstoodrightbetweenus;wecouldatouchedhimnearly.Welllikelyitwasminutesandminutesthattherewarn’tasoundandwealltheresoclosetogether.TherewasaplaceonmyanklethatgottoitchingbutIdasn’tscratchit;andthenmyearbeguntoitch;andnextmybackrightbetweenmyshoulders.SeemedlikeI’ddieifIcouldn’tscratch.WellI’venoticedthatthingplentytimessince.Ifyouarewiththequalityoratafuneralortryingtogotosleepwhenyouain’tsleepy--ifyouareanywhereswhereitwon’tdoforyoutoscratchwhyyouwillitchalloverinupwardsofathousandplaces.PrettysoonJimsays:“SaywhoisyouWharisyouDogmycatsefIdidn’hearsumf’n.WellIknowwhatI’sgwynetodo:I’sgwynetosetdownhereandlistentellIhearsitagin.”SohesetdownonthegroundbetwixtmeandTom.Heleanedhisbackupagainstatreeandstretchedhislegsouttilloneofthemmosttouchedoneofmine.Mynosebeguntoitch.Ititchedtillthetearscomeintomyeyes.ButIdasn’tscratch.Thenitbeguntoitchontheinside.NextIgottoitchingunderneath.Ididn’tknowhowIwasgoingtosetstill.Thismiserablenesswentonasmuchassixorsevenminutes;butitseemedasightlongerthanthat.Iwasitchinginelevendifferentplacesnow.IreckonedIcouldn’tstanditmore’naminutelongerbutIsetmyteethhardandgotreadytotry.JustthenJimbeguntobreatheheavy;nexthebeguntosnore--andthenIwasprettysooncomfortableagain.……SomethoughtitwouldbegoodtokilltheFAMILIESofboysthattoldthesecrets.Tomsaiditwasagoodideasohetookapencilandwroteitin.ThenBenRogerssays:“Here’sHuckFinnhehain’tgotnofamily;whatyougoingtodo‘bouthim”“Wellhain’thegotafather”saysTomSawyer.“Yeshe’sgotafatherbutyoucan’tneverfindhimthesedays.Heusedtolaydrunkwiththehogsinthetanyardbuthehain’tbeenseeninthesepartsforayearormore.”Theytalkeditoverandtheywasgoingtorulemeoutbecausetheysaideveryboymusthaveafamilyorsomebodytokillorelseitwouldn’tbefairandsquarefortheothers.Wellnobodycouldthinkofanythingtodo--everybodywasstumpedandsetstill.Iwasmostreadytocry;butallatonceIthoughtofawayandsoIofferedthemMissWatson--theycouldkillher.Everybodysaid:“Ohshe’lldo.That’sallright.Huckcancomein.”
2.Omit.
3.HowdoesbilingualismdifferfromdiglossiaDoyouthinkthephenomenonofdiglossiaexistsinChinaBilingualismreferstothesituationwheretwodifferentlanguagescoexistandareusedsidelaysideinasocietyoramongindividuals.Thetwolanguagesmaybeusedinthesamesituations.Diglossiareferstothesituationwheretwovarietiesofthesamelanguageareused.Thetwovarietiesareusedinsituationsinvolvingdifferentformalities.4-
7.OmitUnit12TheAcquisitionofEnglish[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.LearningEnglishistoodifficultforChinesestudentstobesuccessful.F
2.ThemoreinputofEnglishaChinesestudentobtainsthemorehewilllearn.FNote:Theinputhastobeadequateinquantitycomprehensibleinqualityetc.Italsohastobenoticedbeforeitbecomesintakeforthelearner.
3.BoystudentscanneverlearnEnglishaswellasgirlstudentsinChina.F
4.AllerrorslearnerscommitinEnglishproductionmustbecorrected.F
5.Learners’firstlanguageisanobstacletotheirL2acquisition.FNote:Learners’firstlanguagecanresultinpositivetransfertoo.■In-ClassActivities
1.ASK:1ArethereanyactivitiesinyourEnglishclassthataremorelikethoseforacquisitionthanforlearningOmit.2WhataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofacquisitionandlearningrespectivelyAdvantagesofacquisition:motivated;input-rich;interactive;etc.Disadvantagesofacquisition:notfocused;time-consuming;lessexplicitknowledgeaboutlanguage;etc.Advantagesoflearning:focused;directinstruction;explicitknowledgeaboutlanguage;efficient;etc.Disadvantagesoflearning:lackofstrongmotivation;oftenboring;remotefromlanguageuse;etc.2-
4.Omit.
5.ASK:1CanyougivemoreexamplesofforeignertalkIsthereanythingnegativeaboutitInsufficiencyofauthenticinput;givingrisetounidiomaticEnglish.2WhenyoutalktosomeonewithamuchlowerEnglishproficiencysaysomeoneyoumeetatanEnglishcornerdoyouconsciouslyuse“comprehensibleinput”Omit.
6.Omit.
7.ASK:1WhataresomecommonvocabularylearningstrategiesusedbyEnglishlearnersHowaboutyourowncaseRotelearning;usingnotebooks;contextualizedlearning;relyingonword-formationrules;pairorteamwork;learningbyassociation;etc.2DoyouknowanyreadingstrategiesElaborateononeofthem.Omit.
8.Omit.
9.ASK:1HowmanychunksareusedineachofthedataUnderlinethechunksusedandthencomparethetwodata.Seetheunderlinedpartsbelow:Ithinkitshardtosay.Itdependsthesurroundingsandenvironment.Iftheyarebaditisappropriateforcollegestudentsrentapartmentsoutsidethecampusandlivethere.Butifthesituationaregooditsnotappropriate.GenerallyspeakingIdontthinktheanswerisbad.Therearethreereasons.Thefirstsafetyproblems.Ifyouliveincampustherearemanystudentslivetogethersoyoucangotouniversityclassroomslibrariestogether.Youcandomanythingstogether.Ifyouareillorhavesomeunusualthingstheycanhelpyou.Andiftheycanthelpyoutheycantelltheteachersaboutthesethings.Butyoulivealoneoutsidecampusnobodycandothis.Thesecondconvenientproblems.Ifyouliveinthecampusyoullbemoreconvenienttostudytogotoclassroomstocomputerroomstolibraryrooms.Youdonthavetogooutorcomeintostudy.Thethirdyoucanfeelthelivestogether.Inthegroupsyoucanfeeltherelationships.Infactithasnorelationshipsbutbecauseyoulivetogetherdoeverythingtogetheryouwillbecomemoreclosetoeachother.Itslikeabighome.Ifyouliveoutsidethecampusyouwontfeelthisthing.Ithinkitisbettertoliveinsidethecampus.224wordsIthinktheideaofcollegestudents’rentingapartmentsoffcampusisagreatthingincertainschools.Youdon’thavetostrugglewiththegettingtoschoolinthemorningandfindingparkingwhichaccordingtomoststudentswithcarsit’sdifficultalthoughIthinkifyoucancomparethattosomeotheruniversitiesourtenminuteswalkisverylittle.ButIthinkforcertainstudentsitisagoodideaandsomethingthatworksfortheminasensethattheylikehavingaplacetogohometoattheendofthedaythat’snotoncampusandtogetawayfromkindofthestressofDavidsonandpressurecookerandbubblethatwelivein.ButformepersonallyIthinkthatwouldbeapoordecisionbecauseIwouldprobablynevercomeoutofthatapartmentmosttimes.It’sdifficultenoughtodragyourselffromdownthehillupthehillforapartyorclassorget-togetherandIthinkbeingoffcampusIwilljustkindofholdupinmyapartmentandnotleaveveryoftenwhichmaybegreatformyworkethicbutprobablynotgoodformysociallife.ButIdohaveafriendthatislivingoffcampusnowandshelovesit.Sheandherroommatescookdinnereverynight.Theyhangoutthereandhavepartiesoverthereandgatheringsomedinnerparties.Butshedoesadmitthatshedoesn’tgetsomuchtimewithpeoplelivingoncampusasshedidinpreviousyearsandyouhavealsohavetogetthewholeideaifsomethinggoeswronginyourapartmentyouneedtocallaplumbercallanelectricianandwhereasoncampusyousimplyhavetoputinaworkorderandsomeonecomesoverforfreetofixwhatevertheproblemthereis.Butnomatterwhereyouliveanapartmentisagoodexperiencetohavebeforeenteringtherealworldaftergraduation.336words2Whatimplicationcanyoudrawaftercomparingthedifferentfrequenciesinthetwosetsofdatathataresupposedlyrepresentativeofnativeandnon-nativespeechNativespeakersdependmuchmoreonchunksintheirproduction.Thissuggeststhatweaslearnersneedtolearnandmasterasmanychunksaspossible.MemoryworkisamustforL2learning.
10.ASK:1WhatisthestylisticproblemwiththiscompositionSupportyourjudgmentwithspecificexamples.Thereishighfrequentuseofcolloquialexpressionslikethecontractedform“it’s”thefamiliarword“maybe”andtheexpression“Imustsay”.2Supplybetteroptionsforwhatyouconsidertobestylisticallyimproperexpressions.Itis;Itislikelythat;itistobeadmittedthat….3NowreadthefollowingspeechbyanotherChineselearnertakenfromaChineseLearners’Onthewholethespeechisstatisticallyappropriatebecausethespeakerusesshortandsimplesentencescontractedformsetc.Thespeechisabitmonotonousthough.Note:thesecondparagraphcomesfromadifferentspeechandthusmustbedeleted.
11.ASK:1HaveyouevercommittedanypragmaticfailuresinyourencounterswithforeignteachersOmit.2ArethereanyothertypesofpragmaticfailuresthatChineselearnersmaybumpintounawaresa.Inappropriategreetingslike“Haveyoueatenyourbreakfast”b.Inappropriatecomplimentslike“You’reputonalotofweight.”c.Misuseof“Sorry”for“Excuseme”.Task3:StudyQuestions1-
5.Omit.
6.UnderlineinthefollowinglearnerproductionstheexpressionscollocationsandsentencestructuresthatyouconsidertobetypicalofChinglish.Passage1GetReadyforTomorrow’sRainSomepeoplethinkweshouldsavemoneytodayfortomorrow.Somethinkweshouldusemoneytodayfromtomorrow.AlthoughthetwoopinionsbothhaveownadvantagebutinmyopinionIthinksavemoneytodayismorereasonable.Savemoneytodaycanmakeyoureadyfortomorrow’srain.Incaseyoumeetsomeunexpectedthingforexampleyourcarsuddenlygowrongyourfamilymembergetillwithoutanypreparationyourchildrenbringsomeserioustroubletoyouandsoon.Allthesekindsofthingsneedenoughmoneytodealwith.Usingtomorrow’smoneyisenjoyablenowbutwhatwedowhenwemeetwiththosethingsLifeisnotkindenoughtous.Youneverknowwhichmomenthewillmakefoolofyou.Soweshouldhavemoneyinourhand.AndalsoasacommonwomanIwillhavemyfamilyandchildren.Ihavetheresponsibilitytogivethemgoodlifeandshouldnotgetthemintotrouble.BecauseofthisreasonImustsavealotofmoney.SoIwillsavemoneyinsteadofusetomorrow’smoney.Passage2EducationasaLifelongProcessEducationisalifelongprocess.Atschoolstudentsshouldlearntheknowledgefrombooksandteacher.Whentheybecomeadulttheyalsoshouldlearnfromthesocietybythemselves.Inawordlearningisendless.Theworldisbigandthesocietyisvaryingandimproving.Soonemancan’tsay“Iwillalsobeawiseman10yearslater.”Wedon’tknowhowtheworldwillbelikewhenweare30or40justasmygrandmadidn’tknoweverychildcouldplaycomputertoday.I’manEnglishmajorinXXXUniversitynowbutIdon’tknowwhether10yearslaterIstillcangetagoodjobasanEnglishmajorformoreandmorepeoplecanspeakEnglishwellinChina.Thoughwestillincampusweshouldgetintouchwiththesocietynoticenewthingsandtoptechnologyandimportantinternationalnewsatlastweshouldmakeusproperforthesociety.Alsoweshouldrememberlearningisnotatemporalworkbutneedpatienceanddetermination.ThereisanoldsayinginChina:Growingabigtreeneeds10yearswhileeducatingagoodmanneeds100years.Thisoldsayingneedustolearnallourlife.
7.TherearetwotendenciesinChineselearners’useofEnglish:eithertheyaretooformalintheiroralEnglishortheyaretooinformalintheirwrittenEnglish.Illustrateeachofthetwotendenciesbasedonthefollowinglearnerproductiondata.WrittenData:EducationasaLifelongProcessEducationisnotonlygoingtoschool.Actuallyyouaregettingitjustfromthemomentyouwereborn.Yourfirstteachersareyourparents.Nomatteriftheygotgoodeducatedtheywillteachyoualotofthingssuchaseatingdressing.Thenyougotoschool.Schooltimeisjustapartofyoureducationperiod.Youwillgetmoreandmoreadvancedandusefulknowledgeinschool.Atthemeanwhileyouwillbetaughttobeacitizeninthesocietyandapersonontheearth.Thenyoucansecureagoodjobwhichcangiveyoumorechancetobeabrilliantman.Ifyouraresuccessfulyoushouldn’tbeproudbecausetheworldischangingeverymoment.IfyouthinkyouaresobrilliantthatyoucangiveupeducationtheGodwillgiveupyou.ForexampleMichaelJordanisabrilliantperson.Butifhewastooproudtocrowoverhewouldfindthatmoreandmoreskillfulyoungplayercouldplaybasketballbetter.Sotheaudiencewouldabandonhim.Andifhewastooproudtoberudetojournalistsandfanshewouldbenotworthyofrespect.Sothesocietywouldabandonhim.Inawordifasuccessfulmangiveupeducationhewilllosewayanddon’tknowhowtokeepitandhowtobearealmanhewillfailatlast.Whilewhenyouareintroublepleasedon’tworry.Whatyouneedischancesconfidenceandwhatismostimportanteducation.Whatyoushoulddoistogetadvancededucationwhichcanteachyouhowtocatchchanceshowtogetconfidence.WhatIwanttosayatlastisthateducationisakeytoleadingarealandhappylife.SpokenData:RentingApartmentsInmyopinionitisnotappropriateforcollegestudentstorentapartmentsoutsidethecampus.FirstIthinktherewillbealotofinconvenience.Firstisthemoneyproblem.Comparedwith800yuanayeartoliveonthecampusinthedormitoryusuallyallstudentshavetopay300to500yuanamonthtorentapartmentoutsidewhichisabigsumofmoneyforourstudentswhohavenoregularjobs.SecondlyIthinkifthestudentsliveoutsidethecampustheycannotusealotoffacilityonthecampusforexamplethestudentdininghallandthelibrary.Theyhavetocookthefoodthemselvesbecausediningintherestaurantmustbeveryexpensive.Aboveallifhelivesoutsidethecampusitmaybeareasonforhisbeingregularlylateforclass.Thethirdmajorreasonformyargumentthatitisnotappropriatetorentapartmentoutsideisthatitwillcausetheproblemofcommunication.Livingoutsidehiscommunicationwithclassmatesandhisteachermustbereducedandespeciallyforthosestudentswhoarehuntingjobstheinformationisreallyimportantforthem.Livingoutsidewillblocktheiraccesstotheinformationofsomeimportantgoodjob.Furthermorehisrelationshipwithhisclassmateswillbecomenotsogood.Ifhelivesinthedormitorybecausetherewillbealotofencountertheycantalkwithhisclassmatesinthedormitoryaboutalotofthingsanditwillgivehimideasoropinionsfromdifferentaspects.ThelastreasonIthinkisthesecurityproblem.Especiallythosegirlshavetotakethesafeproblemintoconsiderationbythemselves.
8.Communicativecompetenceasdefinedaboveismuchbroaderthanpragmaticcompetenceinscope.Thelatterhastwocomponents:pragmalinguisticcompetencewhichreferstothelinguisticknowledgethatenablesonetoemployproperlinguisticformsforsomegivendiscoursefunctions;sociopragmaticcompetencewhichreferstotheabilitytomatchlinguisticresourceswithsociallyappropriatesituationsasreflectedbythesensitivitytosuchfactorsassocialstatussocialdistancerightsandobligationsetc.Theremaynotbeapositivecorrelationamongthethreecomponentsasevidencedbysomestudies.Unit13EmpiricalStudiesofEnglish[Checkyourunderstanding]StatewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse.
1.Conceptualresearchdoesnotmakeuseofinduction.F
2.Aqualitativestudydoesnotinvolvenumericdataanalysis.T
3.Interviewstudiesmustinvolveatleast30subjects.F
4.Anexperimentalresearchmusthavebothapre-testandapost-test.FNote:Someexperimentsdonotusepretestsbutcandependonexistingliteratureortests.
5.Acorpusisthematerialsyoucollect.FNote:Itmustberepresentativeorbigenough.
1.ASK:1WhatistheindependentvariabledependentvariableandmoderatorvariablerespectivelyIV:thegenderoftheteachers;DV:popularitywiththestudents;MV:Thegenderofthestudents.2HowaboutastudywiththehypothesisthatusingL1intheprocessoflearningEnglishhasanegativeeffectonstudents’learningoutcomesbutithasastrongernegativeeffectonadultthanyounglearnersIV:L1use;DV:students’learningoutcomes;MV:ageoflearners.
2.ASK:1WhyarethetwoquestionstoogeneraltobeansweredL2learnersarenotspecificenough.Englishwordsmayvaryalotintheuseofstress.Differentaspectsmayprovedifferentintheirdifficultyoflearning.2WhatspecificquestionscanyouthinkofinordertoanswereachofthemFora:a.HowdoEnglishmajorsusestressforEnglishwordsb.DoesEnglishproficiencyhaveaneffectonEnglishmajors’useofstressforEnglishwordsc.IsthereanydifferencebetweenmalestudentsandfemalestudentsintheuseofstressforEnglishwordsForb:a.HowdoL2learnersatdifferentstagesstudyEnglishgrammarb.WhatgrammaticalitemsareeasierormoredifferenttoL2learnersc.DolearnersofdifferentproficiencylevelsstudyEnglishgrammarinthesamewayd.WhatistheL2learners’attitudetowardsthestudyofEnglishgrammar
3.ASK:Omit.
4.ASK:1WhatarethevariablesinvolvedinthestudyIV:amountofreadinginclassDV:scoresinthevocabularytest2WhataresomeinterveningvariablesthatarenotcontrolledThepreviousvocabularysizemotivationtheamountofreadingoutsideofclasstheconstructofvocabularytestthestrategiesusedinmemorizingwordsetc.
5.ASK:1WhatisalongitudinalstudyHowisitdifferentfromacross-sectionalstudyAlongitudinalstudyisacorrelationalresearchstudythatinvolvesrepeatedobservationsofthesameitemsoverlongperiodsoftime.Unlikecross-sectionalstudieslongitudinalstudiestrackthesamepeopleandthereforethedifferencesobservedinthosepeoplearelesslikelytobetheresultofotherfactors.Becauselongitudinalstudiesareobservationalinthesensethattheyobservethestateoftheworldwithoutmanipulatingitithasbeenarguedthattheymayhavelesspowertodetectcausalrelationshipsthandoexperiments.Butbecauseoftherepeatedobservationattheindividualleveltheyhavemorepowerthancross-sectionalobservationalstudiesbyvirtueofbeingabletoexcludetime-invariantunobservedindividualdifferencesandbyvirtueofobservingthetemporalorderofevents.[basedonWikipedia]2WhyismaturationworthyofourattentioninthestudyofsecondlanguageacquisitionInL2learningmaturationtakesplaceaslearnersbecomeolderandmoreexperienced.3WhatfactorsmayenhancethepossibilityofmortalityWhatcanwedoaboutitWhentheexperimentisboringtime-consumingtoodemandingorwhensomesubjectshavetoleavetheexperimentalplaceetc.Weneedtofindwaystomotivatethesubjects.Inadditionweneedtousethemefficiently.
6.ASK:1Whatisthemethodologicalsignificanceoftype-tokendescriptionBothtypecountingandtokencountingaresignificant.Fortheformerwegetinformationonthedistributionofgeneralcategories;forthelatterweobtaininformationonthefrequencyofcertaintypes.Frequencyisanimportantnotioninthestudyoflanguageanditsuse.2HowmanysentencepatternsrefertoChapter4ifnecessaryoccurinthepassageTakingeachpatternasatypewhatisthenumberoftokensforeachtypeSentencepatterns/typesTokensFrequencySV41113184SVO1357101214161920222412SVOC17212SVOA81SVA91SVOO6152SVC22323Wherecanwealsoapplythetype-tokendistinctiontothestudyofEnglishOmit.■ExercisesTask1:StudyQuestions
1.Supposeastudyraisessuchahypothesis:Studentswhodosixrevisionsofthesamecompositionprogressfasterthanthosewhosimplywritesixdifferentcompositionswithoutrevisions.WhatistheindependentvariableandthedependentvariablerespectivelyWhatmoderatorvariablescanyouintroduceintothestudyHowaboutastudywiththehypothesis:StudentswhousemorevarietiesoflearningstrategiesandusethemmorefrequentlylearnEnglishbetterthanthosewhousefewervarietiesoflearningstrategiesandusethemlessfrequentlyForthefirststudy:Independentvariable:Methodsofteachingwritingmultipledraftsv.s.singledraft;Dependentvariable:ImprovementinL2writing;Moderatorvariable:gender;proficiencylevel.Forthesecondstudy:Independentvariable:Varietiesandfrequencyofthestrategyuse;Dependentvariable:Englishlearningoutcomes.
2.Readeachofthefollowingabstractsandpointoutthevariousaspectsoftheresearch.StudyOne:Independentvariables:teachercomments;peercomments.Dependentvariables:amountofrevision;attitudetowardteacher/peercommentsRQs:a.Howdoteachercommentsandpeercommentsleadtolearners’revisionrespectivelyb.Aretheredifferencesinthelearners’attitudetowardsteachercommentsandpeercommentsc.Howdopeercommentscontributetothelearners’writingprocessStudyTwo:IndependentVariable:errorfeedbackDependentVariable:self-editingofthetextsModeratorVariables:feedbackconditions;feedbacktypesexplicitvs.implicitRQs:a.Howdoesteacherfeedbackaffectthestudents’self-editingindifferentfeedbackconditionsb.Doestheuseofcodesinmarkingerrorsdifferfromnon-useofcodesintheeffectonstudents’self-editing
3.Whattypesofinformationcanweobtainwhenusingathink-aloudWhataresomedetailstowhichweneedtopayadequateattentionWecangetinformationabouttheprocessthesubjectgoesthroughinreadingwritingetc.andthusmaygettoknowtheirbeliefsstrategiesmethodsetc.used.Thesubjectmayeitherforgetsomethingheorsheexperiencesorsaysomethingfalse.Thusa.Thethink-aloudneedstobedoneimmediatelyaftertheexperiment.b.Thesubjectneedstobeagoodreporterandthusneedstraining.
4.Interviewsevenofyourclassmatesabouttheirstrategiesfortranslatingunknownwords.Categorizeandclassifytheirresponses.Omit.
5.TheHawthorneeffectoccursinanexperimentwhensomesubjectsinvolvedaresopleasedtobechosenforthestudythattheybehavebetterthanusual.Whatcanwedoaboutita.Waittilltheycalmdown;b.Ignoretheirperformanceinthefirststage;c.Keepthetestsecret.
6.Whatcriteriashouldweadoptwhenestablishingacorpusa.Itshouldbebigenough.b.Itshouldberepresentative.c.itshouldberetrievablebythecomputer.7-
9.Omit.。